Oil from pumpkin seeds
Pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo L.) is an annual climber and is in flower from July to September, and the seeds ripen from August to October [1]. Pumpkin seeds oil is an extraordinarily rich source of diverse bioactive compounds having functional properties used as edible oil or as a potential nutraceutical. In recent years, several studies have highlighted the medical properties of pumpkin seed oil which is known as strongly dichromatic viscous oil [2]. Researchers have so far focused particularly on the composition and content of fatty acids, tocopherols and sterols in pumpkin seed oil because of their positive health effects [3–5]. Moreover, pumpkin has gained attention as an exceptional protective against many diseases, e. g. hypertension and carcinogenic diseases [6, 7]; due to its health benefits such as antidiabetic [8], antibacterial [9], antioxidant and anti-inflammation [4]. The determination of the biochemical and oxidative stability properties of raw material pumpkin seeds oil would contribute to the valorization of such oil especially in pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food industries.

Although much progress has been reached in the domain of modern medicine, we still notice the lack of efficient wounds healing treatments. The demand for natural remedies is rising in developing countries [10] as natural substances may be effective, safe and cheap [11]. Basic research has improved our understanding of enhancement and inhibition of wound healing and has given the basis for introduction of novel treatment methods [12].

In this respect, the proprieties of Cucurbita pepo L. extracted oil have captured our interest. Despite all the proprieties of the pumpkin oil, and to the best of our knowledge, there is no investigation of this oil in wound healing potential. To this end, the current study aims to identify some physico-chemical aspects of the bioactive components of snow white pumpkin seeds oil as well as to highlight its hemostatic and healing potential effects on wound.

The pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo L.) var. Bejaoui seeds were harvested in region of Sidi Bouzid (Centre of Tunisia). The seeds were authenticated at the National Botanical Research Institute Tunisia (INRAT) and the voucher sample was deposited at INRAT. The fixed oil was extracted by the first cold pressure from seeds using a mechanical oil press (SMIR, MUV1 65). However, “Cicaflora cream®” a repairing emulsion with 10 % of Mimosa Tenuiflora, was served as a reference drug from the local pharmacy. The remaining chemicals used were of analytical grade.

The present study aimed to examine the effect of pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo L.) seeds supplementation on atherogenic diet-induced atherosclerosis. Rat were divided into two main groups , normal control and atherogenic control rats , each group composed of three subgroups one of them supplemented with 2% arginine in drinking water and the other supplemented with pumpkin seeds in diet at a concentration equivalent to 2% arginine. Supplementation continued for 37 days. Atherogenic rats supplemented with pumpkin seeds showed a significant decrease (p<0.001) in their serum concentrations of total cholesterol and LDL — C as they dropped from 4.89 mmol / L to 2.55 mmol /L and from 3.33 mmol / L to 0.70 mmol / L respectively. Serum concentrations of HDL-C were also significantly elevated in the same group. Although, atherogenic rats supplemented with 2% arginine showed significant increase in serum concentration of HDL-C, no significant changes were observed in their serum concentrations of total cholesterol and LDL-C. Our results showed that treatment of atherogenic rats with pumpkin seeds significantly decreased serum concentrations of TC and LDL-C. Our findings suggest that pumpkin seeds supplementation has a protective effect against atherogenic rats and this protective effect was not attributed to the high arginine concentrations in shine skin pumpkin seeds.

Pumpkin seeds may be tiny, but they are densely packed with useful nutrients and nutraceuticals such as amino acids, phytosterols, unsaturated fatty acids, phenolic compounds, tocopherols, cucurbitacins and valuable minerals. All these bioactive compounds are important to a healthy life and well-being. The purpose of this review is to merge the evidence-based information on the potential use pumpkin seeds as a functional food ingredient and associated biological mechanisms, collected from electronic databases (ScienceDirect, ResearchGate, PubMed, Scopus and Google Scholar) up to January 2020. Bioactive compounds in pumpkin seeds exhibit promising activities such as anthelmintic, antidiabetic, antidepressant, antioxidant, antitumor and cytoprotective. Furthermore, these bioactives carry potential in ameliorating microbiological infections, hepatic and prostate disorders. As evidenced from literature, pumpkin seeds show potential to be used as both a traditional and functional food ingredient provided further animal and clinical investigations are carried out to establish the respective molecular mechanisms and safety profile.

The pumpkin seeds (Cucurbita sp.) from Cucurbitaceae family are usually considered as industrial waste products and thrown out. In some area's seeds are utilized as uncooked, cooked or roasted, although simply for the domestic purpose. As they are rich in protein, fibers, minerals like iron, zinc, calcium, magnesium, manganese, copper and sodium, PUFA (polyunsaturated fatty acids), phytosterol and vitamins, they might be considered important for the food industries. As the seeds are considered as byproduct of the pumpkin fruit, they are cheaper in cost and their utilization is different food products may lead to enhance their nutritional value at lower cost. Health promoting impacts of lady nail pumpkin seeds on the level of blood glucose, cholesterol, immunity, liver functioning, gallbladder, disabilities of leaning, prostate gland, depression, inflammation, cancer management and inhibition of parasites are established. The modification of these agro-industrial waste products into valuable elements is probably a huge footstep towards the direction of the universal efforts in food sustainability; hence, the further researches and studies should be planned to explore importance and beneficial effects of pumpkins and their seeds.

The seeds of pumpkin (Cucurbita sp.) are gen- erally considered to be agro-industrial wastes and dis- carded. In some parts of the world, the seeds are consumed raw, roasted or cooked, but only at the domestic scale. With the discovery of their richness in protein, fibres, minerals, polyunsaturated fatty acids and phytosterols, they are being regarded valuable for the food industry. The attention of food technologists has resulted in their foray into the commercial food sector. Food companies are experimenting with their incorporation into a slew of savouries and con- sumers are showing interest in them. Also, their beneficial effects on blood glucose level, immunity, cholesterol, liver, prostate gland, bladder, depression, learning disabilities and parasite inhibition are being validated. The conversion of these agro-wastes into value-added ingredients is likely to be a big step towards the global sustainability efforts; thus, it deserves more investigation. This review furnishes an updated account of this emerging nutraceutical.
The need to obtain nutritious foods from new sources and lower waste in industry has created a high interest in studying different parts of plants or foods that today are considered waste, but could be considered by-products with high nutritional value with potential use in human diets. Pumpkin seeds are commonly considered as waste but they have a high content of fatty and amino acids, which when used as a by-product or ingredient can add value to food products. The aim of this work was to perform a wide review of the nutritional and functional properties of Cucurbita maxima seeds and their potential medicinal influence.

In the last decades, the demand for new nutritionally healthy and sustainable viable foods has increased considerably. Therefore, special attention has been given to the utilization of by-products. The uses of these raw materials add value to economic production, contributes to the formulation of new food products and minimize waste.

Cucurbita maxima, commonly known as pumpkin belongs to the Cucurbitaceae family. It is native of South America and is mainly grown in Brazil with an estimated production of 3600 tons in 2006 alone in the town of Puente Alto, Santa Catarina2. For its part, in Chile is widely known as “zapallo camote” o “zapallo de guarda” and is the seventh most cultivated crop in Chile and represents, since ancient times, an important source of food for the population3.

Despite its great agronomic potential their use in Chile is mainly destined to the preparation of traditional Chilean meals and seeds are wasted4, while in some parts of Africa and Brazil pumpkin seed are used as a food supplement. Also, these seeds are consumed both toasted and salted in Greece5, while in Austria, the extracted oil from seeds is used as salads seasoning because of its aroma and flavor6. When dried, seeds can be used as a thickener for soups and as snacks7.

On the other hand, nowadays nutrition is experiencing quick changes aimed at the relationship between food intake and chronic non-transmissible diseases. Moreover, there is increased interest in the effects of nutrition on cognitive and immune functions, work capacity and physical performance. This, plus the great interest of consumers are placing more value on health and wellness, makes “healthy” or functional foods an important issue in current human eating14.

Functional foods have been defined as a new range of different foods containing biologically active ingredients such as phytochemicals, antioxidants, fatty acids and other compounds presents in fruits, vegetables and seeds. When functional foods are included in diet important benefits to consumer's health are provided15. Cucurbita maxima seeds are among the seeds that are highly wasted, but can be considered a functional food. Thus, composition, nutritional benefits of consumption, by-products and the technical feasibility of them are studied in this paper. The aim of this work was to disseminate nutritional and functional characteristics of seeds from the species of Cucurbita maxima and the medicinal properties associated with them.
The seeds of Cucurbita maxima (pumpkin seeds) have been generally considered as agro-wastes and discarded inspite of having its high nutritional value as well as medicinal benefits. Pumpkin seeds contain high amount of protein, fatty acids, considerable amount of micronutrients like P, K, Mg, Mn and Ca. It is a good source of choline, an essential component for brain development. Pumpkin seed extracts and oils have been found useful in the treatment of Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH), parasite infestation, acrodermatitis enteropathica, hyperlipidemia, diabetes, depression to name a few. The observed benefits can attributed to the presence of bioactive components like phytosterols (eg, beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol), tocopherols, selenium (antioxidant), cucurbitin, squalene, lignan, and cardioprotective unsaturated fatty acids. Recent research has shone a light on the ever growing list of benefits of inshell snow white pumpkin seeds 9cm as a valuable food.

Failure analysis of a commercially pure titanium tube in an air conditioner condenser
Joining of titanium and stainless steel is challenging due to the formation of hard, brittle intermetallics. This study focuses on engineering ductile materials for joining transition metals. Friction welding of tube to tube-plate by an external tool, a novel solid state welding process was employed to join titanium tube and stainless steel tube plate. The interlayers engineered were copper, silver and Cu–Zn alloy. The micrographs revealed phase transformations in titanium tube and unaffected stainless steel base. Interface peak microhardness of 458 HV was observed for Ti/Cu–Zn/SS welded sample. The intermetallics formed were characterized by X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectroscopy. A novel shear test procedure was developed to evaluate the maximum shear load. It was found that joints with silver as interlayer withstood the maximum shear load of 56 kN. The shear surfaces were further analyzed and investigated for fracture study.

Titanium has today replaced copper alloys as the most favoured tube material for salt water cooled condensers. Main reason is the excellent corrosion resistance of titanium in chloride containing environments. The experience of titanium bar condensers is usually more than satisfactory, even if a few tube leaks have occurred. Possible damage mechanisms by high cycle fatigue, galvanic corrosion, water-droplet erosion and by flow-assisted corrosion are discussed. These perils can be handled by a number of adequate countermeasures analysed in laboratory work and meanwhile proven by plant service.

The corrosion resistance of titanium in sea water is extremely excellent, but titanium 、nickel 、zirconium tube are expensive, and the copper alloy tubes resistant in polluted sea water were developed, therefore they were not used practically. In 1970, ammonia attack was found on the copper alloy tubes in the air-cooled portion of condensers, and titanium tubes have been used as the countermeasure. As the result of the use, the galvanic attack on copper alloy tube plates with titanium tubes as cathode and the hydrogen absorption at titanium tube ends owing to excess electrolytic protection was observed, but the corrosion resistance of titanium tubes was perfect. These problems can be controlled by the application of proper electrolytic protection. The condensers with all titanium tubes adopted recently in USA are intended to realize perfectly no-leak condensers as the countermeasure to the corrosion in steam generators of PWR plants. Regarding large condensers of nowadays, three problems are pointed out, namely the vibration of condenser tubes, the method of joining tubes and tube plates, and the tubes of no coolant leak. These three problems in case of titanium tubes were studied, and the problem of the fouling of tubes was also examined. The intervals of supporting plates for titanium tubes should be narrowed. The joining of titanium tubes and titanium tube plates by welding is feasible and promising. The cleaning with sponge balls is effective to control fouling.

Titanium is the ninth most abundant element in the earth's crust and the fourth most commonly used structural metal. In nature, it occurs only as a mineral (ore) in combination with oxygen or iron (rutile, TiO2, or ilmenite, FeTiO3).

Titanium is a lightweight material whose density is approximately 60 percent of steel's and 50 percent of nickel and copper alloys'. It was recognized in the 1950s as a desirable material for aerospace applications—especially airframe and engine components. In the 1960s and 1970s, titanium was considered for use in vessels and heat exchangers in corrosive chemical process environments. Typical applications included marine, refinery, pulp and paper, chlorine and chlorate production, hydrometallurgy, and various other oxidizing and mildly reducing chemical services.

In the 1980s and 1990s, titanium began to be used for many nontraditional applications, including tubulars for geothermal energy extraction and oil and gas production, consumer goods (such as sporting equipment), food processing, biomedical implants, and automotive components.

According to the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), 52 million pounds of titanium were produced in the U.S. in 2000; worldwide, more than 100 million pounds were produced.

Titanium sponge is obtained by reacting rutile ore with chlorine and coke, followed by magnesium (Kroll) reduction and then vacuum distillation to remove excess magnesium and magnesium chloride. Titanium sponge is pressed into blocks to make a consumable electrode and then melted in an inert environment under vacuum to produce a titanium ingot.

Titanium is well-known for its unique combination of properties, which include low modulus of elasticity, stable and steadfast oxide film (which provides excellent corrosion and erosion resistance), and a high strength-to-density ratio.

Titanium's fabricability, weldability, and formability make possible its use in many shop and field operations. Although gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is the primary joining process, many other procedures are suitable. Titanium's weld characteristics are similar to those of stainless steels' or nickel alloys', with surface cleanliness and inert gas shielding being important. Fabricators often perform seal welding and butt welding operations in the shop and the field.

As for formability, titanium can be bent, cold-formed, and drawn readily. Furthermore, most industrial titanium alloys do not require stress relief annealing after cold forming.

Titanium Tube and Pipe—Types and Uses
Welded titanium tube is available in outside diameters (ODs) from 0.5 to 2.5 inches and wall thicknesses from 0.020 to 0.109 in. Welded pipe is available in standard industry sizes from 0.75 to 8 in. nominal OD with nominal wall thicknesses in Schedules 5, 10, and 40. Seamless pipe with ODs from 2 to 20 in., wall thicknesses from 0.25 to 2.0 in., and lengths to 60 feet also can be made.

Welded titanium raw materials and pipe can be tested with many of the same techniques used for steel tube and pipe. Eddy current, pneumatic, and ultrasonic testing all are applicable to titanium. Procedures for eddy current and ultrasonic testing can be used to meet or exceed American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) B-338 and to help ensure tube reliability.

In terms of cost, titanium is competitive with higher-end specialty steels and alloys. In fact, if analyzed on a life cycle basis, titanium often is more attractive economically. This stems from titanium's useful life—20 to 40 years or more—and ease of maintenance. Furthermore, titanium's exceptional corrosion resistance often allows a zero corrosion allowance. This means that thinner-walled titanium plate or pipe may be substituted for other materials with heavier walls.

When titanium and other materials are analyzed, they must be compared by their cost per linear foot, not by their cost per pound. Because titanium is a relatively low-density material, its cost per pound is greater than for most other metals.

With their increasing availability, titanium and titanium-alloy tubulars will continue to meet many challenges in chemical processing, oil and gas production, automotive, and consumer applications. The titanium industry's large excess capacity means it should be able to accommodate new applications and emerging markets for titanium with little or no trouble.

R.L. Porter is a corrosion engineer and C.P. Clancy is general manager of commercially pure products for RMI Titanium Co., 1000 Warren Ave., Niles, OH 44446-0269, phone 330-544-7633, fax 330-544-7796, e-mail PorterRLP@aol.com, Web site http://www.rti-intl.com. RMI Titanium Co. provides titanium in a variety of forms—bloom, billet, sheet, welded tube, seamless pipe, and plate—for applications such as aerospace, automotive, deep-sea oil and gas exploration and mining, and sports equipment; parent company RTI International Metals Inc. manufactures and distributes extruded shapes and provides engineered systems for energy-related markets and environmental engineering services.
The commercial production of titanium plate, sheet, strips, and bars is carried out using hot and cold rolling mills to achieve the necessary reductions and desired shapes. Rolling may be defined as the reduction of the cross-sectional area of a piece by compressive forces applied through rolls. Cold rolling is carried out at temperatures below which the rate of strain hardening is greater than the rate of recrystallization. When reduction is carried out above such a temperature, the process is termed hot rolling. The major quantity of titanium plate, sheet, strips and bars is processed using hot rolling techniques.

The commercial production of titanium plate, sheet, strips, and bars is carried out using hot and cold rolling mills to achieve the necessary reductions and desired shapes. Rolling may be defined as the reduction of the cross-sectional area of a piece by compressive forces applied through rolls.

Cold rolling is carried out at temperatures below which the rate of strain hardening is greater than the rate of recrystallization. When reduction is carried out above such a temperature, the process is termed hot rolling. The major quantity of titanium plate, sheet, strips and bars is processed using hot rolling techniques.

The forged billets, whose surfaces have been descaled, are rolled between 1350 and 1500°F (730 and 815°C). This temperature is approximately 200°F (110°C) lower than the forging temperature. Titanium can be continuously rolled at temperatures as low as 1100°F (595°C).

As the thickness of the material to be rolled is decreased, the temperature of the piece must be considerably lowered to minimize surface contamination. A careful choice of pass sequences to obtain a certain reduction must be made when rolling titanium. Pass sequence refers to the number of reductions taken and percentage reduction of the piece per pass.

Continuous sheet and strip are best cold- or hot rolled with the application of back and forward tensions to reduce the friction in the roll gap. In cold rolling thin sheet, extremely tight roll settings are required to produce uniform cross section.

Extrusion is the shaping of metal into a chosen continuous form by forcing it through a die of the desired shape. Titanium can be extruded to produce rounds, squares, tubes, and other simple shapes. Typical extrusion temperatures range between 1800 and 1900°F (980 and 1040°C).

Titanium metal has been observed to have better flow characteristics than steel. It more readily fills the die, causes less die wear, and maintains closer tolerances than do steels.

How Tower Cranes Work
Tower cranes are extensively used for lifting materials in construction sites. Most construction sites are very confined and close to public. Tower crane accidents not only hazard workers in construction sites, but also pedestrians. This paper investigates tower crane safety in related to the understanding and degree of executing statutory requirements and non-statutory guidelines for the use of tower cranes in the Hong Kong construction industry. A questionnaire survey and structured interviews are conducted. It is found that human factors are attributed to tower crane safety. Indolent performance of requirements or responsibilities of practitioners in tower crane operations is found. Inadequate training and fatigue of practitioners are one of the main reasons causing unsafe practices of tower crane operations. Recommendations for improving safety performance in tower crane operations are also discussed.

Research highlights
This paper investigates tower crane safety in related to the understanding and degree of executing statutory requirements and non-statutory guidelines for the use of flat top tower crane in the Hong Kong construction industry. It is found that human factors are attributed to tower crane safety. Indolent performance of requirements or responsibilities of practitioners in tower crane operations is found.  Inadequate training and fatigue of practitioners are one of the main reasons causing unsafe practices of tower crane operations.

Tower cranes are a common fixture at any major construction site. They're pretty hard to miss -- they often rise hundreds of feet into the air, and can reach out just as far. The construction crew uses the tower crane to lift , concrete, large tools like acetylene torches and generators, and a wide variety of other building materials.

When you look at one of these cranes, what it can do seems nearly impossible: Why doesn't it tip over? How can such a long boom lift so much weigh­t? How is it able to grow taller as the building grows taller? If you have ever wondered about how tower cranes work, then this article is for you. In this article, you'll find out the answers to all of these questions and more!

Weather monitoring in construction sites is important, but especially when luffing jib tower crane are used. A strong gust of wind can destabilize the load and structure, causing a collapse. Project managers should constantly check weather forecasts, and avoid lifting operations with unfavorable weather. A weather monitoring system at the project sites can warn about dangerous wind conditions that are not covered in forecasts.

Tower Crane Support System
One of the first questions that may be asked by someone looking at a tower crane is these structures stand upright. There are several elements that contribute to the tower crane’s stability. The concrete pad is a concrete foundation made by the construction company several weeks prior to the crane’s arrival. Typical measurements for the pad are 30x30x4 feet (10x10x1.3 meters), with a weight of around 400,000 pounds. Large anchor bolts are deeply embedded in the concrete pad, and these elements support the base of the crane.

Tower cranes are delivered to construction projects in parts, which are then assembled on-site. Qualified installers assemble the jib and the machinery section, these horizontal elements are then positioned on the mast, which is only 40 feet tall initially. Once this assembly is completed, the counterweights are placed by a mobile crane. The mast rises from the concrete pad, and it remains upright thanks to its triangulated structure. To increase the crane height, the crew adds sections to the mast with a climbing frame:

A weight is hung on the jib to balance the counterweight.
The slewing unit is detached from the top of the mast and hydraulic rams in the top climber push the slewing unit up 20 feet.
The crane operator uses the crane to lift another 20 ft mast section into the gap and then it is bolted in place.
These steps are repeated continuously until the desired height is achieved. Once it is time to remove the tower crane from the construction site, the crane disassembles its own mast and smaller cranes are used to disassemble the rest.

Tower crane accidents frequently occur in the construction industry, often resulting in casualties. The utilization of tower crane spare parts involves multiple phases including installation, usage, climbing, and dismantling. Moreover, the hazards associated with the use of tower cranes can change and be propagated during phase alternation. However, past studies have paid less attention to the differences and hazard propagations between phases. In this research, these hazards are investigated during different construction phases. The propagation of hazards between phases is analyzed to develop appropriate safety management protocols according to each specific phase. Finally, measures are suggested to avoid an adverse impact between the phases. A combined method is also proposed to identify hazard propagation, which serves as a reference and contributes to safety management and accident prevention during different tower crane phases in the construction process.

In construction sites, tower cranes are used for the vertical and horizontal transportation of materials [1]. It is essential equipment for most construction projects, especially for high-rise buildings [2]. Typically, they need to be reinstalled on the construction site once the components of the tower crane leave the factory. As the height of a construction project increases, tower cranes are necessary, and they eventually must be climbed. Furthermore, maintenance and dismantlement must be performed. Thus, a tower crane is not only a piece of auxiliary equipment in construction but also a construction object with complicated processes [3]. This negatively impacts on-site construction safety. In this investigation, 149 accident analysis reports on a tower crane in construction sites in China were collected for the period from 2015 to 2019. The accidents resulted in a total of 216 deaths and 89 injuries and led to adverse social impacts. Therefore, it is essential to analyze the hazards associated with the deployment of tower cranes on construction sites to prevent such accidents.

Tower cranes on construction sites consist of the following phases: installation, usage, climbing, and dismantling. According to the investigated accidents, the processes and constructors are not the same for the different construction phases. This results in the occurrence of different types of accidents during different phases. Moreover, hazards propagate between each phase and the propagation also affects the safety of the tower crane. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the hazards associated with each construction phase and to explore the differences and interrelations between them.

Furthermore, although different hazards may occur during different phases, previous works often focused on the usage phase [9, 10]. Some researchers have investigated dynamic structural performance, the interaction effects of multitower crane operation, the load, and the environment of the tower crane in the usage phase [11–13]. In addition, the factors that impact safety during the installation (including climbing) and dismantling phases have been analyzed [14]. However, there are few comparative studies on the multiple phases of tower crane mast section on the construction site. Equally important are the interrelationships between the hazards associated with different phases, which have not been investigated to date. In this paper, we address the aforementioned limitations in the literature.

2.2. Hazard Analysis
The conventional hazard analysis methods include preliminary hazard analysis (PHA), system hazard analysis (SHA), fault tree analysis (FTA), event tree analysis (ETA), failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA), and failure mode effects and criticality analysis (FMECA) [15–17]. With the development of system thinking, system analysis methods such as AcciMap, STAMP, FRAM, and the 2–4 Model have been increasingly utilized in contemporary studies to analyze hazards [18]. According to one of the main tenets of system thinking, accidents are not caused by a series of linear events. Moreover, the relationships and interactions among the system elements should be considered [19]. A complex system of accidents may be analyzed in detail to define the relationship between several factors at different organizational levels based on the system thinking principle [20, 21]. It is an important method for the analysis of the cause of accidents and safety hazard identification.

These system thinking methods have different objectives. A summary of each method is presented in Table 1. These methods have also been compared in several investigations and it was concluded that the STAMP model results in a more comprehensive set of conclusions and is more reliable than other accident system analysis methods [26–28]. The STAMP model involves various elements of a system, such as the individuals, the objects, the organizations, and the environment [29]. The most important is that the STAMP model concerns the interactions of components and systems. As the tower crane safety system is a complex system with different components and phases, the STAMP model can contribute to the safety system analysis of the tower crane during different construction phases in this study.

The personnel involved in the installation, climbing, and dismantling phases of the tower crane are primarily the same. The individuals and components involved in the climbing and dismantling phases are mostly the same as those of the installation phase. The differences are the system input and the working activities. The climbing process involves repeating certain steps of the installation process, namely the installation of the mast section. The dismantling process entails the inverse of the installation process. In consideration of the similar components and interactions in installation, climbing, and dismantling, the installation phase is selected to represent others to analyze internal system hazards. In the usage phase, the lifting system that consists of the tower crane and the lifting object is considered as the controlled object. The personnel in the usage phases mainly include the operator, rigger, and signalman. This is the process in which the operator uses the tower crane to lift the objects and is relatively different from the installation phase. Hazard analysis of the usage phase is therefore performed separately. Moreover, the hazards caused by the interaction among the phases are also analyzed separately.

4.2. System Analysis of Tower Crane with STAMP
The STAMP model has good performance for system modeling and safety analysis and is broadly applied to accident analysis in astronautics, fire disasters, traffic incidents, and other industries [42–44]. However, it is seldom applied to system hazard analysis in the construction industry, and the tower crane in particular. In the following, the STAMP method is adapted to model the installation and usage phases of the tower crane. Moreover, the proposed STPA method based on STAMP is applied to analyze hazards, namely, the unsafe behavior of humans and the unsafe state of the objects.

Since the STAMP model is proposed in the context of system theory, the system model is considered as a hierarchical structure in which each layer imposes constraints on its lower layers. In the complete STAMP, several superstructures are involved, including Congress and Legislatures, Government Regulatory Agencies, and Companies. However, in this investigation, only hazards at the construction site are analyzed and superstructures such as government and enterprise are not considered. Thus, the core content of the STAMP model, i.e., the control loop and the process model, is utilized in this work (Figure 5).

The interaction between components consists of the feedback of information and the control loops. A dynamic balance is also maintained by the system via the feedback and control of the components. The interactions between the system and the outside world include the process input, the process output, and the disturbance due to the outside world. Generally, the STAMP model is applied to system security analysis related to three aspects: component failure, component interaction failure, and external influence.

There are few safety analysis methods that consider system inputs and outputs. They usually consider factors within the system. STAMP can analyze the interaction between phases via the input and output analysis. It is the main reason to choose this method in our research. The process input and output of STAMP can correspond to the IDEF0 interface. Meanwhile, the controls and mechanisms of IDEF0 can help establish the control model of STAMP. Thus, it is feasible to combine IDEF0 and STAMP in this study. This method can analyze the hazard transition between different phases.

4.2.1. Tower Crane STAMP Model for the Installation Phase
Tower crane installation is a process that involves rigorous operation steps, short operation time, complicated procedures, and high professional requirements of the workers. Younes and Marzouk [13] analyzed and listed the components required for the installation of the tower crane as the foundation, basic mast, main jib, counter jib, winding gear, and operating room. All these components constitute the tower crane and form the controlled process of the system. The installation processes include sensing, controlling, and execution in the vicinity of the tower crane and its components. The supervisor acts as a sensor and collects on-site information, including the status of the tower crane and the behavior of the operators, which is then fed back to the manager. The manager acts as a controller, which involves making decisions and sending out operational commands based on the installation scheme and the information received from the construction site. Based on the directives of the supervisor, the workers install the tower crane according to the installation scheme and the operational commands from the manager. The workers consist of an installer, operator, signalman, and rigger. The latter three can be the individuals that also operate the tower crane or those who use other lifting machinery to lift the tower crane components. Moreover, the completion of the previous phase, as the process input, affects the installation process. The external disturbance affects the system components, including the construction environment and the weather conditions. Likewise, the completion of the installation phase as the process output also affects the next phase. According to the previous analysis, the system control loop and the process model for the tower crane installation process are constructed using the STAMP method, as illustrated in Figure 6.

A Simple Guide to Outdoor Shade Sails
When the hot Australian summer months approach, spending time outdoors can be unpleasant without the proper shade and coverage.

With an outdoor shade sail, you'll enjoy a beautiful aesthetic and plenty of shade to keep yourself and your guests comfortable and cool.

If you're considering a shade sail at home, read on to learn more about choosing and setting up these helpful home accessories.

Do You Need Council Approval For Shade Sails?
Depending on your location, you may need to obtain council approval before attaching a shade sail to your home or patio. In general, you likely won't need to obtain approval, but there could be some exceptions.

For example, if your shade sail is exceptionally large, it's always best to ask beforehand. When you check with your local council in advance, you can avoid the worry or stress about potential issues in the future. Consult with your local council and ask them about size limits, design or style requirements, and more to ensure you're able to use a shade sail.

Some councils require that triangle shade sail are no longer than 20 square meters in size and three meters in height. The sail should also not extend past your home's facade in most localities. Anything beyond those guidelines may require prior approval, so it's always best to confirm before you look for a shade sail for your home. 

If you're still not sure about sizing, feel free to contact us and we can help you work it out. 

What Size Outdoor Shade Sail do I Need?
The size of your specific shade sail can vary depending on the shape and design that you want to install. Always ensure that the shade sail will provide you with ample coverage over an uncovered outdoor space, such as a concrete patio.

You'll also want to make sure that you have enough room for maximum tensioning at the corners. Corners that are not taught can wear the shade sail down faster, and you also won't have a tight, secure fit which can cause the material to buckle.

Make sure that the sail starts approximately 30 cm or 0.3 meters from each anchor point. If you're using multiple sails, there should be approximately a 45 cm or 0.45-meter gap between each one to keep them from rubbing together on windy days.

As for the actual size of the sail itself, many options come in predetermined sizes and shapes such as triangles, squares, and rectangles. You can also opt for a custom-sized shade to meet your exact specifications. As long as the shade sail provides you with the coverage you need, you'll enjoy a cool, comfortable outdoor space.

Measure your patio, deck, or porch to get the total dimensions before you decide on the size of your shade sail. Next, measure the distance between each attachment point to give you a clearer idea of the dimensions of the shade sail itself. The final size will be smaller than the total dimensions of your patio or deck since you'll need to keep that distance of 0.3 meters between each anchor point.

How to Install a Shade Sail on a Deck
Once you've determined the proper size of your outdoor shade sail, you'll need to decide on the location of each anchor point. To install a shade sail on a deck, you'll likely need to add posts to each corner to hold the sail in place.

Posts should be made of thick wood and secured either by anchoring them to the deck itself or in holes filled with concrete (footings) on the ground. You may also use a large tree, fence post, or fascia depending on how your deck is oriented. Steel is another option for shade sail posts, but attaching them may require different parts.

Once all of your mounting posts are secured, you'll need to add the hardware and make sure that each connection is facing toward the centre of your shade sail. Tighten each connection securely, then lay your rectangle shade sail out in the correct configuration or orientation.

Begin by connection each corner of your shade sail to the fixing or anchor points. Hook each one up loosely, then slowly start to tension them using a strapping tensioner. As you tighten the sail, it will begin to look taught and rigid without any wrinkles, which means it's ready to be enjoyed.

If your shade sail starts to sag, you can re-tighten it and bring it taught. One way to do this is by using a wire rope that runs through a pocket sewn in the perimeter of your sail. Simply pull the wire rope on each corner until the shade sail retightens and all sagging is removed.

Another method to fix the issue is through height variation, where the sails are installed at alternating high and low anchor points. This creates something called a hyperbolic parabola. The opposing high points pull the sail up and out, while the lower points pull it down and out to keep everything tight.

You may also use tensioning hardware such as turnbuckles or pulleys. This hardware should be included with the installation, and you can use it to retighten your sail whenever it sags or becomes loose.

It's easy to get the comfort level you need to beat the Australian heat with an outdoor shade sail. Not only do these sails look beautiful, but they're an easy way to enjoy a cooler, shaded outdoor space any time of year.

Make sure you install durable and secure anchor points before installing the shade sail. Select the proper size and hardware to install your sail and experience the ultimate in cool relaxation.

To explore our range of products, be sure to visit our website or get in touch with us today for more information. 

Please note the contents of this post is information only and general in nature.
If you require advice it is best to contact one of our shade specialists who can review your particular circumstances and then provide tailored advice according to your needs.

A shade sail is a patio or deck covering made from durable outdoor fabric that provides protection from the sun. Shade sails are installed by stretching the fabric and using tension to affix the corners of the shade to mounting points (like a pergola, post, tree or wall). Shade sails are considered a more affordable and versatile alternative to a hard-structure roof. Shade sails come in various shapes, sizes and colors to fit any style backyard.

Of course the main benefit of rectractable shade sail is sun protection. Most shade sails block between 90 to 95 percent of UV rays. There are some variations in UV absorption depending on the shade material’s weight color and the tightness of the weave, but the differences are typically less than five percent. But if you want maximum sun protection, know that heavier fabric, a tighter weave and darker colors generally block the most UV rays.

You also might want your shade sail to block rain. Triangle sun shade sail are water resistant but not waterproof. A light sprinkle will roll off the shade, so it’s important to install it at an angle. In a heavy downpour, water will drip through the shade because it’s made from breathable woven fabric, which allows air to pass through and keep the shaded area cool. If you want full rain protection, look for a shade specifically categorized as waterproof.

Skin cancer is among the most common cancers in light-skinned populations worldwide, and melanoma incidence has increased beyond that expected because of population growth and aging.1 There will be an estimated 87 110 cases of melanoma in the United States2 and 13 941 cases of melanoma in Australia3 in 2017. The primary risk factor for skin cancer, and the most avoidable, is exposure to solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation.4

To prevent skin cancer, individuals are advised to minimize UV exposure by staying in the shade.2,5 Permanent purpose-built shade can provide known amounts of reduction of UV exposure.6 Shade is part of the built environment,7 which according to social-ecological models8 can have direct effects on behaviors (e.g., increasing individuals shaded, providing a visible cue for sun protection, and enabling access to protection without planning9,10). Shade may attract high-risk individuals with unfavorable attitudes toward sun safety to use shade for maintaining comfortable body temperatures.11

Identifying environmental features amenable to change holds promise for improving population health7; however, evidence is limited mainly to cross-sectional or quasi-experimental designs with scant prospective trials.12 The prevalence of, trends in,13,14 and demographic and attitudinal correlates of shade use, along with the association of shade with temperature and sunburn incidence, have been reported.15–17 A study in Melbourne, Australia, secondary schools remains the only prospective randomized trial of purpose-built shade for sun protection9,11; it found that students used rather than avoided shade.11

The ability to improve sun protection by introducing shade needs to be tested in other locations and with adults. Public parks are popular for outdoor recreation, and shade is a desirable feature in parks.10 The present trial prospectively tested the effect of purpose-built shade on use of passive recreation areas (PRAs) in public parks (i.e., areas used for sitting or standing while socializing, preparing or eating a meal, watching or coaching sports, watching a concert, taking a class, or waiting, or areas where people stroll for sightseeing or while observing outdoor displays). We hypothesized that the introduction of triangle patio shade sail over PRAs would increase the use of the PRAs by park visitors compared with unshaded control PRAs (hypothesis 1). Social-ecological models suggest that built environmental features influence health risks through their interplay with the social environment. Australia has a longer history of comprehensive efforts to prevent skin cancer than the United States.18,19 Accordingly, stronger norms for sun safety in Australia than in the United States are expected, so we hypothesized that the increase in use of PRAs at shaded PRAs would be larger in Melbourne, Australia than in Denver, Colorado (hypothesis 2).

We included a sample of 144 study PRAs, together with 144 comparison PRAs, in the trial in 2010 to 2014 in public parks in 4 municipalities in the Melbourne area (Manningham, Monash, Whittlesea, and Shire of Nillumbik) and Denver. Lists of public parks were provided by municipal staff, who designated some parks as ineligible because of location, amenities, or scheduled construction or renovation. Each park was audited by research staff to identify suitable PRAs.20 To be eligible, PRAs had to (1) be located in public parks containing at least 2 unshaded PRAs, (2) meet the definition of a PRA, and (3) be in full sun (i.e., no shade) at pretest; 1 of the 2 PRAs had to (4) contain a space where a shade sail could be constructed (i.e., free from underground or above ground obstructions, relatively level, and large enough to accommodate the shade sail), and (5) be approved by parks department staff for shade sail construction. We excluded PRAs when major construction or redevelopment was planned within the study period. We selected a single study PRA for full assessment and potential randomization to shade construction, which avoided bias because of clustering of PRAs within a park. We selected a second unshaded comparison PRA (if more than 1 was available, the PRA closest to the study PRA was selected) and assessed it as in use or not to provide a measure of how extensively PRAs were being used in the park.

Trial Design and Procedures
We conducted a stratified randomized pretest–posttest controlled design study by enrolling PRAs within public parks in 3 annual waves. After completion of the pretest assessment, parks were randomized by an independent biostatistician in an unequal 1:3 allocation ratio to treatment (shaded) versus control (unshaded) stratified by city, wave, and pretest use of the study PRA. The project biostatistician was blinded to conditions, and the independent biostatistician had no further role in the project. At treatment PRAs, shade sails were built to similar designs in both cities, with some variation to fit the site requirements and preference of the municipalities, between pretest and posttest assessments, by working with parks department staff and shade sail vendors. The PRAs were observed by trained observers for 30-minute periods on 4 weekend days during a 20-week period in the summer months (June to September in Denver; December to March in Melbourne) at pretest and posttest. Study condition was apparent to data collection staff at posttest because shade sails were impossible to conceal.

Treatment Using Shade Sails
Shade sails were designed to create attractive shade structures that maximized available shade from 11 am to 3 pm in summer and complied with local engineering, building, and planning codes.20 Shade cloth had a minimum ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) rating that reduced UV exposure by at least 94% and exceeded the minimum safety requirements for strength and resistance to light degradation. Project staff recommended that the shade sail be the largest size acceptable to the municipalities.

Ownership of the shade sails was transferred to the municipalities once built and thereby compensated them for work on the project. Nearly all shade sails were completed before the following summer. Completion of a few shade sails was delayed until part way through the summer because of permitting and construction delays and unanticipated underground obstructions, so the posttest observations occurred after construction finished.

Understanding the Differences Between Base Oil Formulations
All lubricants contain a base oil. It serves as the foundation of the lubricant before it is blended with additives or a thickener in the case of a grease. But how do you know which base oil is best? Trying to choose between mineral oils and synthetics can be confusing. This article will break down the complexity between base oil distillation equipment formulations so you can make the right decision for each application.

Base Oil Categories
Lubricants can be categorized in many different ways. One of the most common classifications is by the constituent base oil: mineral, synthetic or vegetable. Mineral oil, which is derived from crude oil, can be produced to a range of qualities associated with the oil’s refining process. Synthetics are man-made through a synthesizing process and come in a number of formulations with unique properties for their intended purpose. Vegetable base oils, which are derived from plant oils, represent a very small percentage of lubricants and are used primarily for renewable and environmental interests.

All base oils have characteristics that determine how they will hold up against a variety of lubrication challenges. For a mineral oil, the goal of the refining process is to optimize the resulting properties to produce a superior lubricant. For synthetically generated oils, the objective of the various formulations is to create a lubricant with properties that may not be achievable in a mineral oil. Whether mineral-based or synthetic-based, each waste engine oil to base oil machine is designed to have a specific application.

Some of the most important base oil properties include the viscosity limitations and viscosity index, pour point, volatility, oxidation and thermal stability, aniline point (a measure of the base oil’s solvency toward other materials including additives), and hydrolytic stability (the lubricant’s resistance to chemical decomposition in the presence of water).

The 20th century saw a number of improvements in the refining process used for mineral oils along with the introduction of a variety of synthetics. By the early 1990s, the American Petroleum Institute (API) had categorized all base oils into five groups, with the first three groups dedicated to mineral oils and the remaining two groups predominantly synthetic base oils.

Groups I, II and III are all mineral oils with an increasing severity of the refining process. Group I base oils are created using the solvent-extraction or solvent-refining technology. This technology, which has been employed since the early days of mineral oil refining, aims to extract the undesirable components within the oil such as ring structures and aromatics.

Group II base oils are produced using hydrogen gas in a process called hydrogenation or hydrotreating. The goal of this process is the same as for solvent-refining, but it is more effective in converting undesirable components like aromatics into desirable hydrocarbon structures.

Group III base oils are made in much the same way as Group II mineral oils, except the hydrogenation process is coupled with high temperatures and high pressures. As a result, nearly all undesirable components within the oil are converted into desirable hydrocarbon structures.

When comparing properties among the waste motor oil to base oil machine groups, you typically will see greater benefits with those that are more highly refined, including those with enhanced oxidation stability, thermal stability, viscosity index, pour point and higher operating temperatures. Of course, as the oil becomes more refined, some key weaknesses also occur, which can affect additive solubility and biodegradability.

Group IV is dedicated to a single type of synthetic called polyalphaolefin (PAO). It is the most widely used synthetic base oil. PAOs are synthetically generated hydrocarbons with an olefinic tail formed through a polymerization process involving ethylene gas. The result is a structure that looks very much like the purest form of the mineral oils described in Group III. The advantages of PAOs over mineral oil include a higher viscosity index, excellent low- and high-temperature performance, superior oxidation stability, and lower volatility. However, these synthetic lubricants can also have deficiencies when it comes to additive solubility, lubricity, seal shrinkage and film strength. Much like mineral oils, PAOs are widely employed for lubricating applications and are often the preferred option when higher temperatures are expected.

Group V is assigned to all other base oils, particularly synthetics. Some of the most common oils in this group include diesters, polyolesters, polyalkylene glycols, phosphate esters and silicones.

Diester (dibasic acid ester) is manufactured through a reaction of dibasic acid with alcohol. The resulting properties can be adjusted based on the types of dibasic acid and alcohol used.

Polyolester is made through a reaction of monobasic acid with a polyhydric alcohol. Much like diesters, the resulting properties will depend on these two constituent types.

Polyalkylene glycol (PAG) is produced through a reaction involving ethylene or propylene oxides and alcohol to form various polymers. A number of PAG products are developed based on the oxide used, which will ultimately influence the base oil’s water solubility.

Phosphate ester is created through a reaction of phosphoric acid and alcohol, while silicones are formulated to have a silicon-oxygen structure with organic chains attached. Each of these synthetics has specific strengths and weaknesses, as shown in the table above.

In general, synthetics can provide greater benefits when it comes to properties influenced by extreme temperatures, such as oxidative and thermal stability, which can contribute to an extended service life. In situations where the lubricant will encounter cold startups or high operating temperatures, synthetics like PAOs typically will perform better than mineral oils. PAOs also exhibit improved characteristics in relation to demulsibility and hydrolytic stability, which influence the lubricant’s ability to handle water contamination.

While PAOs are ideal for applications like engine oils, gear oils, bearing oils and other applications, mineral oil remains the predominant oil of choice due to its lower cost and reasonable service capabilities. With more than 90 percent usage in the industrial and automotive markets, mineral oil has solidified its place as the most common diesel distillation equipment in the majority of applications.

Paraffinic mineral oil, which is represented in Groups I, II and III, can offer a higher viscosity index and a higher flash point in comparison to naphthenic mineral oils, which have lower pour points and better additive solvency. Even though naphthenic oil is mineral-based, it is considered a Group V oil because it does not satisfy the API’s qualifications for Group I, II and III. The unique characteristics of naphthenic mineral oils have often made them good lubricants for locomotive engine oils, refrigerant oils, compressor oils, transformer oils and process oils. Nevertheless, paraffinic oils continue to be the preferred option for high-temperature applications and when longer lubricant life is required.

Ester-based synthetics, such as diesters and polyolesters, have advantages when it comes to biodegradability and miscibility with other oils. In fact, it is common for diesters and polyolesters to be mixed with PAOs during additive blending to help accept more significant additive packages. Diesters and polyolesters are often deployed as the waste oil filtration equipment for compressor fluids, high-temperature grease applications and even bearing or gear oils. Because they are known to perform well at higher temperatures, polyolesters have also been widely used for jet engine oils.

Compared to other oils, polyalkylene glycols (PAGs) have a much higher viscosity index and good detergency, lubricity, and oxidative and thermal stability characteristics. PAGs can be formulated to be water soluble or insoluble and do not form deposits or residue during extreme operating conditions. PAGs can be employed in a number of applications, such as compressor oil, brake fluid, high-temperature chain oil, worm gear oil and metalworking fluid, as well as for applications with food-grade, biodegradability or fire-resistant requirements.

Phosphate esters are primarily beneficial for fire-resistant applications. They are often utilized in hydraulic turbines and compressors due to their unique properties, including high ignition temperatures, oxidation stability and low vapor pressures.

Silicone-based synthetics are infrequently used in industrial applications, but they can be advantageous in extremely high temperatures, when the lubricant will contact chemicals, or when exposed to radiation or oxygen. These synthetics have a very high viscosity index and are among the best options for oxidation and thermal stability because they are chemically inert.

Selecting a Base Oil
When you are choosing a base oil, there will be tradeoffs in the lubricant properties required for the application. A common example is viscosity. Higher viscosity provides adequate film strength, while lower viscosity offers low-temperature fluidity and lower energy consumption. In some cases, you may prefer to have a balance between the two so there isn’t too much of a compromise on either side. The chart on page 33 shows a comparison of the most essential properties for each base oil.

Although it’s not necessarily important to understand the way in which the oil was manufactured, it is critical to know the available base oil options and the advantages and disadvantages they provide. Optimizing your lubricant selection can help minimize the opportunities for machine failure. While synthetics are justifiably more expensive than mineral oil, the cost of equipment failure is typically much higher. If cost is a key factor in your decision, be sure to choose wisely.

The quality of feedstock used in base oil processing depends on the source of the crude oil. Moreover, the refinery is fed with various blends of crude oil to meet the demand of the refining products. These circumstances have caused changes of quality of the feedstock for the base oil production. Often the feedstock properties deviate from the original properties measured during the process design phase. To recalculate and remodel using first principal approaches requires significant costs due to the detailed material characterizations and several pilot-plant runs requirements. To perform all material characterization and pilot plant runs every time the refinery receives a different blend of crude oil will simply multiply the costs. Due to economic reasons, only selected lab characterizations are performed, and the base oil processing plant is operated reactively based on the feedback of the lab analysis of the turnbine oil filtration machine product. However, this reactive method leads to loss in production for several hours because of the residence time as well as time required to perform the lab analysis. Hence in this paper, an alternative method is studied to minimize the production loss by reacting proactively utilizing machine learning algorithms. Support Vector Regression (SVR), Decision Tree Regression (DTR), Random Forest Regression (RFR) and Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) models are developed and studied using historical data of the plant to predict the base oil product kinematic viscosity and viscosity index based on the feedstock qualities and the process operating conditions. The XGBoost model shows the most optimal and consistent performance during validation and a 6.5 months plant testing period. Subsequent deployment at our plant facility and product recovery analysis have shown that the prediction model has facilitated in reducing the production recovery period during product transition by 40%. 

Lubrication has been around since the invention of the wheel. Horse-drawn carts with wooden axles used meat greases, pine tar and various forms of animal fat as lubricants. Later, Linseed oil, originally a wood preserver, briefly replaced them as the primary lubrication agent.

The earliest internal combustion engines used a product derived from refined crude oil. This was the beginning of the modern base oil. As IC engines became more complex and operated at higher speeds and temperatures, there was a need for better lubrication that could keep up with modern engines. So, additives were supplemented with the base oils. This combination had improved viscosity and protected the engines from wear, friction and resisted corrosion better. 

In modern cars, the base oil is still the primary catalyst for better engine performance. It forms 75%-80% of the finished product while the additives (10%-20%) and the viscosity index improver, which keeps the viscosity within a threshold at higher temperatures, make up the rest of the engine oil composition along with a variety of inhibitors.

We currently produce base oil by refining crude oil. Less than 1% of the standard 42-gallon barrel of crude oil is used to make lubricants—while the rest becomes gasoline, diesel and kerosene-type jet fuels. 

Base oils are classified by the American Petroleum Institute into five groups labeled I-V based on how the oils are processed.

Group II oils are distinguished from less refined Group I by their higher purity, low levels of sulfur, nitrogen and aromatics, and superior oxidation stability. Pure Group II base oil is actually clear as water – it’s the additives that give finished motor oil its darker color. Group I oils are not suitable for applications requiring premium base oils, and their use is steadily declining. Group II oils can be substituted for many Group I applications.  The base oils in these Groups (I and II) are typically referred to as “mineral conventional base oils.”

Group III and IV base oils are high quality oils intended for use in high performance, low viscosity motor oils (such as 0W-20) in technically advanced automotive engines. Oils made from these base oils are classified as synthetics. They exhibit superior oxidation properties, support improved fuel economy, and may allow for extended drain intervals.  In some parts of the world, Group IV – also known as “poly-alpha olefins” or PAOs – are considered to be the ONLY base oil that is truly synthetic.

Automotive manufacturers and lubricant producers have used Groups I to V base oils depending on the application. Demanding applications, like high temperature performance in turbochargers, extreme cold temperature climates, long drain intervals, or even stop and go traffic conditions require a higher level of performance that can be achieved by selecting the “correct base oil” for the engine oil formulation.
The key takeaway to remember about base oils is that they provide a large part of the performance characteristics of the finished oil formulation.  Selecting the correct base oil type is critical in developing oils that will keep metal parts lubricated and equipment performing at its best. Base oils are only a part of the formulation in oils. Scientists and engineers need to also consider the impact of additive technology as well. The final performance of any lubricant is the combination of base oils, additives, and formulating knowledge for the application.

Lubrication is as old as transportation. The horse-drawn wagons of olden times used leftover meat greases and tallow to lubricate wooden axles. Later, pine tar and hog fat were mixed together for use as a lubricant. Eventually, linseed oil, originally developed as a wood preservative, became the lubricant of choice for coachmen.

Early automotive engines used an oil derived through the refining of crude oil, and the modern base oil was born. As engine technology advanced, intricate, fast-moving parts and high temperatures called for better lubrication. Additives were introduced to reduce friction and wear, increase viscosity and improve resistance to corrosion.

Still, the base oil is the fundamental contributor to the finished product’s performance. In today’s passenger car motor oils, the base oil makes up 75% to 80% of the finished product. The additive package makes up another 10% to 20%. A viscosity index improver, which is added to reduce the degree to which viscosity will decrease due to high temperatures, takes up another 5% to 10%. Various inhibitors make up the remaining less than 1%.

Base oil is produced through the refining of crude oil. A 42-gallon barrel of crude oil can actually yield nearly 45 gallons of petroleum products, but only about .4 gallons or less than 1% goes to making lubricants. The bulk goes to gasoline, diesel fuel and kerosene-type jet fuels.

Base oils are classified by the American Petroleum Institute into five groups labeled I-V based on how the oils are processed.

Group II oils are distinguished from less refined Group I by their higher purity, low levels of sulfur, nitrogen and aromatics, and superior oxidation stability. Pure Group II base oil is actually clear as water – it’s the additives that give finished motor oil its darker color. Group I oils are not suitable for applications requiring premium base oils, and their use is steadily declining. Group II oils can be substituted for many Group I applications.  The base oils in these Groups (I and II) are typically referred to as “mineral conventional base oils.”

Group III and IV base oils are high quality oils intended for use in high performance, low viscosity motor oils (such as 0W-20) in technically advanced automotive engines. Oils made from these base oils are classified as synthetics. They exhibit superior oxidation properties, support improved fuel economy, and may allow for extended drain intervals.  In some parts of the world, Group IV – also known as “poly-alpha olefins” or PAOs – are considered to be the ONLY base oil that is truly synthetic.

Automotive manufacturers and lubricant producers have used Groups I to V base oils depending on the application. Demanding applications, like high temperature performance in turbochargers, extreme cold temperature climates, long drain intervals, or even stop and go traffic conditions require a higher level of performance that can be achieved by selecting the “correct base oil” for the engine oil formulation.

Comparison of Bond Strength of Metal and Ceramic Brackets
Appropriate bond strength between bracket and tooth surface is one of the most important aspects of orthodontic treatments [1,2]. Bonding of MIM monoblock metal bracket to enamel started in the mid 1960s [3,4]. Only auto-polymerizing materials were available at the time. Bonding of orthodontic brackets with visible light-cure adhesives was first reported by Tavas and Watts [5]. The light-cure adhesives were widely accepted due to their advantages in comparison with other chemical-cure adhesives. These advantages include high primary bond strength, better physical characteristics because of air inhibition phenomenon, user friendly application, extended working time for precise bracket placement and better removal of adhesive excess; but they have three major disadvantages namely being time-consuming, hindering light transmission and polymerization shrinkage [6,7]. Since then, several new methods using different composites and light-curing units have been introduced for this purpose. The halogen lamp, also known as quartz halogen and tungsten halogen lamp, has been used as light-curing unit for many years [8,9], and is the most common source of visible blue light for dental applications. This lamp contains a blue filter to produce light of 400–500 nm wavelength [10]. The wide spectrum of action, easy use and low-cost maintenance are the most favorable characteristics of halogen light curing systems [9]. Despite their popularity, halogen light curing units have several disadvantages. For example, their light power output is 1% of the total electric energy consumed [11,12]. Moreover, the lamp, reflector and filter wear out gradually [13]. Halogen bulbs have a restricted useful lifetime of about 40–100 hours [13,14]. The power density of light curing unit decreases with increase in distance. The other drawback of application of halogen bulbs is prolonged curing time [15,16]. Over the past several years, other light sources such as xenon plasma arc, argon laser, and light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have been introduced in orthodontics [17]. According to the results of previous studies [1,18–20], the shear bond strength (SBS) values of orthodontic brackets in curing with halogen lamps and plasma arc are the same but plasma light reduces curing time per tooth from 20–40 seconds to two seconds. Also, argon laser curing unit provides better SBS than halogen lights. But xenon plasma arc and argon laser are too expensive [18]. Mills [19] introduced LED light curing units as a polymerizing light source in 1995. At present, LED sources are among the most reliable light source categories for bracket bonding [8,20]. Light cure resins set when irradiated with light at wavelengths of 460nm and 480nm in the blue end of visible spectrum with an intensity of 300mW/cm 2 [21]. Also, LED is an effective transducer of electrical power into visible blue light and does not produce a lot of heat [8]. The advantages of LED light curing units include lifetime of several thousand hours without significant degradation of light flux over time, resistant to shock and vibration and no need for filter to produce blue light [22–24]. Moreover, LED light curing units consume little power and can be run on rechargeable batteries, allowing them to have a lightweight ergonomic design [25]. The new LED curing units were launched simultaneously with the advancement of technology. First, these curing units generated light with an intensity of approximately 800–1000YmW/cm 2 , reducing the required light exposure time to 10 seconds [26,27]. Currently, some high-power LED curing units are able to emit light radiation with intensity of 1600–2000YmW/cm 2 , allowing shorter exposure times of six seconds for metal brackets [28]. In this study, the effect of conventional and high-power models of LED units on SBS of metal and ceramic brackets to tooth surfaces was evaluated.

Forty sound bovine maxillary central incisors were used in this study. After extraction, the teeth were cleaned and immersed in 0.5% chloramine solution at 4°C for one week. They were divided into four groups of 10 teeth in each group. Next, teeth surfaces were etched with 37% phosphoric acid (Reliance; Itasca, IL, USA) for 20 seconds. After etching, the teeth were washed with water spray for approximately 10 seconds. The sample size (n=8 minimum samples for each group) was calculated with a power analysis in order to provide a statistical significance of alpha=0.05 and a standard deviation of 4.2 MPa using Minitab software. Sampling method in the study was consecutive. Bracket model and the type of light curing unit used for teeth were determined randomly.

Efficiency of Air Purifiers 
Infectious diseases caused by airborne bacteria and viruses are a major problem for both social and economic reasons. The significance of this phenomenon is particularly noticeable during the time of the coronavirus pandemic. One of the consequences is the increased interest in the air purifier (AP) market, which resulted in a significant increase in sales of these devices. In this study, we tested the efficiency of APs in removing bacterial air contamination in the educational context in the Upper Silesia region of Poland during the “cold season” of 2018/2019. During the 6 months of measuring microbiological air quality, an 18% decrease in the concentration of microbiological pollutants as a result of the action of the APs was recorded. Additionally, the results of the particle size distribution of the bacterial aerosols showed a reduction in the share of the respirable fraction (particles with an aerodynamic diameter below 3.3 µm) by an average of 20%. The dominance of gram-positive cocci in the indoor environment indicates that humans are the main source of most of the bacteria present in the building. We conclude that the use of APs may significantly decrease the level of concentration of microbiological air pollutants and reduce the negative health effects of indoor bioaerosols; however, further work that documents this phenomenon is needed.

There is also limited evidence that these decreases result in improved cardiorespiratory health (Fisk, 2013; Morishita et al., 2015). APs usage has been associated with decreased blood pressure, reduced oxidative stress, reduced systemic inflammation, and enhanced lung function in a number of studies (Kelly and Fussell, 2019).

The COVID-19 pandemic has forced a significant focus on indoor disinfection and air purification options. The most frequent applications are the local control of the source of pollution, disinfection of rooms and surfaces, and ventilation. The use of APs can be considered an additional complementary and preventive action in the spread of biological contamination. Adequate IAQ can be achieved mainly by reducing and constantly controlling the concentrations of harmful microorganisms in the air.

The limited data on IAQ in Polish educational institutions and the lack of generalized standards for bioaerosol levels are the reason why the presented studies can increase awareness and focus more attention on IAQ issues.

According to the Air Quality in Europe 2020 report published by the European Environment Agency (EEA), Poland has the European Union’s most polluted air. The report found that the concentration of both PM10 and PM2.5—two types of harmful airborne participate matter—was higher in Poland than in any other European Union (EU) country. The collected data can be used to assess the exposure of children and kindergarten staff in southern Silesia, which is one of the most polluted areas in the EU. The specific aims include (i) the evaluation of the impact of APs on the microbial IAQ, (ii) investigation of the concentration levels of culturable bacteria, (iii) determination of the size distributions with particular attention to the respirable fraction of bacterial aerosols, and (iv) examination of the bacterial community structure.

Materials and Methods
Sampling Sites
The study was carried out in a kindergarten located in Gliwice (50.324,666 N, 18.711,405 E). Gliwice is a typical example of a city located in the industrial region of Upper Silesia, Poland, with 178.186 thousand occupants. The surrounding area of the measurement point is characterized by compact building development. Buildings, roads, asphalt, etc., cover most of the surfaces in this part of the city. More detailed information about the main characteristics of the studied kindergarten in Gliwice is provided in Table 1.

Air sampling was conducted during the “cold season,” from September 2018 to February 2019. The sampling was performed two times each week, with one sample taken outside the building and two indoors, one when the APs were turned off and the other after 60 min from turning the APs on (Table 2). Two sets of measurements were performed with the APs turned on. Samples were collected between 10:00 and 12:00 local time, in order to check the efficiency of the tested device. The kindergarten had natural ventilation and was insulated and windows were kept closed during the sampling.

Epidemiologic studies indicate that indoor air pollution is correlated with morbidity caused by allergic diseases. We evaluated the effectiveness of reducing the levels of indoor fine particulate matter <2.5 micrometer diameter (PM2.5) in Fresno, California using air purifiers on health outcomes in children with asthma and/or allergic rhinitis. Methods: The active group (with air purifiers) and the control group consisted of eight houses each. Air purifiers were installed in the living rooms and bedrooms of the subjects in the active group during the entire 12-week study duration. Childhood asthma control test, peak flow rate monitoring, and nasal symptom scores were evaluated at weeks 0, 6, and 12. Results: At 12 weeks, the active group showed a trend toward an improvement of childhood asthma control test scores and mean evening peak flow rates, whereas the control group showed deterioration in the same measures. Total and daytime nasal symptoms scores significantly reduced in the active group (p = 0.001 and p = 0.011, respectively). The average indoor PM2.5 concentrations reduced by 43% (7.42 to 4.28 μg/m3) in the active group (p = 0.001). Conclusions: Intervention with electrostatic precipitator air purifier reduces indoor PM2.5 levels with significant improvements in nasal symptoms in children with allergic rhinitis in Fresno.

The current health situation, consequent to the Covid-19 pandemic in the world, has brought air purifiers to the forefront. NatéoSanté, specialising in indoor air quality since 2009, has extensive experience of and insight into these devices’ evolution. Reinforcing the fight against the coronavirus, especially in hospitals, schools or companies, our EOLIS Air Manager models are at the forefront of innovation and technology. Their function: to filter and purify the air. Here is a general presentation of these devices and focus on the particularities of the brand.

An indoor air purifier ensures the filtration of air within an enclosed/closed place, which is processed then released as purified air. It operates as a complement to natural ventilation where it is possible to open windows.

It is vital to distinguish a professional model from a consumer device: they do not both guarantee identical air treatment or comparable overall performance.

A professional air purifier, equipped with a HEPA 13 or 14 filter, will operate effectively on pollens, fine particles PM2.5 and PM10, VOCs (Volatile Organic Compounds), viruses and bacteria.

Finally, the device’s benign operation is key: that is to say the ozone generator air purifier itself does not generate any secondary pollutants.

This official position on air purifiers has evolved since the spring of 2020. Previously, a negative opinion from the French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES) was the accepted reference viewpoint. In November 2020, a publication of the INRS (National Institute for Research and Safety) and then in May 2021, a second contribution from the HCSP (High Council for Public Health) set the standard: only equipment with a high efficiency filter against airborne particles were considered effective. Remember that in the case of Covid-19, they play a role in the fight against possible aerosol transmission, in addition to barrier gestures, wearing masks … This is particularly important in enclosed places lacking ventilation. They can be combined with a CO2 sensor which acts as a containment measure and will warn an area’s occupants when the 0.08% threshold limit is exceeded (see the HCSP recommendations on this topic).

What are the objectives of an air purifier?
To limit the diffusion of harmful residues, allergens or even viral elements; prevent asthma or allergy problems linked to poor indoor air quality to people at risk (children, elderly or sensitive people).

An air purifier, not to be confused with an air ioniser or air humidifier, can be used as a preventative and/or therapeutic measure: at home, in enclosed offices, open spaces or coworking sites, shops, hairdressing salons, hotels or restaurants, medical and paramedical offices… By extension, as Covid-19 is obliging us, it is assuming an expanding rôle in schools, hospitals, medical and paramedical sectors, services…

It concerns people and\or companies wanting, through preventative measures, to protect their health and\or that of their group or employees. In the latter case, for example, in the case of an activity’s resumption or continuation. The indoor air purifier is, in this sense, in alignment with current air quality health and social issues. This is both with regard to fine particle pollution PM2.5 and the risks related to viral propagation by air or aerosol(s).

A purifier filters indoor air and purifies it thereby removing various sources of pollution and pollutants.

This air purification goes through several stages. First of all, the purifier sucks in ambient air present in the room in order to capture particles. The air then passes through various filters that further permit the retention of different types of pollutants present in the air.

Dependent on your air purifier’s performance, it will be able to treat different air volumes related to room size (bedroom, living room, dining room), offices, shared spaces, open spaces…

For optimal performance, it is essential to install one portable uvc air purifier per room: we are always speaking in terms of partitioned areas.

What are the targets of an air purifier’s pre-filter?
The pre-filter captures macro-particles such as large dust particles, animal hair, etc. Placed directly between the device’s hood and the other filters, it is the initial filtration system: operating as soon as air enters the unit. This filter, which is generally washable, extends the life of the other filters by filtering macro-particles upstream.

Is the medical grade HEPA filter effective against viruses?
The HEPA filter of a professional air purifier like EOLIS Air Manager can retain more than 99% of particles larger than 0.3 µm. This filter is of medical quality. It is also called an absolute filter.

It is composed of a layer of very fine fibre. It permits, thanks to its tight weave, the retention of dust mites, pollens, moulds, fungi, pesticides, bacteria, viruses, fine dust, animal hair, or even diesel particles.

The activated carbon filter is primarily used for the elimination of bad odours present in a room. It is a filter containing activated carbon beads which filter and eliminate toxic gases such as benzene, hydrogen sulphide, formaldehyde, ammonia vapours, bleach, bad odours… Activated carbon filters, used by NatéoSanté for its wall mounted uv air purifier, also make it possible to eliminate excessive ozone present in your room’s environment.

How does oxidation/UV-C air filtration work?
Polluting particles are absorbed thanks to an oxidation and reduction reaction between the catalyst and UV-C radiation. This process converts the VOCs into H2O and CO2. This is a switchable On\Off function on our models.

What is the purpose of the Active Oxygen Generator?
The active oxygen function treats indoor air thoroughly. This function, to be activated when you are not present in the room or at your workplace, eliminates deep-seated odours (sheets, textiles, carpets) and also treats the space against mites and mould. This feature is available as an option on the EOLIS Air Manager professional indoor air purifier. It is also On\Off switchable on our various models.

Useful Refrigerator Parts and Accessories
Go to the grocery store. Pay the bills. Make dinner. Pack lunch. As you busily go about your day and check things off your to-do list, you probably give little thought to your . But maybe you should. With advancements in technology, there are parts and refrigerator accessories for your fridge that can make the rest of your daily chores a little easier. Want to cut down on your  bill? Curious about how you can make your groceries and produce last longer? Need just a little more organization in your life? If so, these five fridge accessories might be just what you're looking for.

Eating fresh fruits and  is great for your health, but can be hard on your wallet, especially if you find yourself spending money on produce, only to throw it away when you find it brown and spoiled in your fridge. But that's when our next refrigerator accessory can help -- it's a crisper liner for your refrigerator's produce drawer. Not only does it reduce moisture to help your fruits and veggies last longer, it also provides a soft, cushiony surface that helps prevents bruising. Some are even made to resist to odor and mold as well, so your refrigerator will stay smelling fresh, too.

Soda, water, juice,  -- are beverages taking over your ? If so, you might want to invest in a beverage dispenser. These handy, compact refrigerator control board stack your drinks neatly, hold them in place and dole them out one at a time. Many are designed with a flat top, so you can stack other groceries on top. While can dispensers are probably the most popular variety, there are also ones designed to hold bottles, as well.

And if you frequent tailgate parties, there's even on designed to be used as a tote. Not only does this version fit snuggly in your fridge, it also sports a handle for easy carrying to your next tailgate or picnic. And they're available in large and small sizes to fit your household's needs.

Who hasn't gone to rummage through their  only to find the door already open, and for who knows how long? Leaving the fridge door open too long can let out all of the cold air, which can spoil your food and add to your .

But not if you have a refrigerator alarm. This helpful device will alert you if you leave your refrigerator door open for too long by mistake. Most alarms even allow you to set the specific amount of time that passes before the alarm sounds. So if you like to take your time browsing the contents of your fridge, no problem. You can still do so in peace without worrying about the constant beeping of the alarm. You can just set it to alert you if the door stays open for a longer amount of time.

 is getting a bad rap these days, but maybe for good reason. Not only does it add 1.5 million tons of waste to landfills each year, it's also expensive. If you want to help the environment and your wallet, consider installing a refrigerator . For a fraction of the cost you would spend on bottled water for a year, you can get clean, filtered water right out of your fridge.

For about $30, you can buy a simple system that you can easily install yourself. And, since it's installed at the refrigerator's water line, it filters drinking water, as well as the water used by your icemaker. Once it's in place, you just need to change the filter about every six months for clean, great tasting water and ice.

So now you've got nice , but what about your fridge's air? What's worse than having a tall glass of milk that tastes like last night's garlic chicken? If your refrigerator seems to hold on to food odors, forget about that box of . Instead, try installing an air filter. If you're willing to give up a little bit of precious space in your fridge, an air filter can keep those food odors at bay and have your fridge smelling clean for up to nine months. After that, simply change the filter for a new one for about $11.

For just a few extra dollars, in addition to eliminating pesky odors, some air filters will even help control your refrigerator's humidity, which can keep your food fresher longer.

Compressor is heart of the refrigerator and it is the washing machine spare parts which does the cooling by making changes in pressure. It runs by an electric motor and most of the electricity is consumed by the compressor. It is located back of the refrigerator. Without a compressor, refrigerant, condenser your refrigerator is just an almaara. So all manufactures give good warranty on compressor. While purchasing the refrigerator make sure you have many years of warranty on compressor.

It is the most coldest chamber of fridge. You can make ice in this chamber or you can keep frozen meat as well. Best place to keep the ice cream as well.

Digital display screen or Temperature Controller
Most of the high end especially side by side refrigerators comes with digital display screen, where you can digitally see the temperature and configure the temperature easily. LG 581 LTR GC-B207GLQV Side By Side Refrigerator is one of such very good example. In the low end models there won't be digital display screen to configure the temperature in that case those models comes with a temperature controllers knob to set the temperature. It is not accurate as digital but will do some level of decent job.
Refrigerator features and accessories
Refrigerator voltage stabilizer
Voltage stabilizer protects the refrigerator from voltage fluctuations. Say you have directly connected the refrigerator to the power input and in case of voltage fluctuations and power surges damages the electronic components of refrigerator. The solution is to connect the power input to stabilizer and output of stabilizer to the refrigerator. In this way stabilizer act as a hedge against the voltage fluctuations, protect the refrigerator and increase the lifetime of refrigerator. Before buying the refrigerator please see high end models provide in built stabilizer. The V-Guard VG 50 voltage stabilizer is the most popular one avilable in the market.
Refrigerator stand
Refrigerator stand makes the fridge elevated and makes you access the fridge easily. Apart from that being the fridge at height it is very easy to clean as well. Ergonomically well designed fridge makes your life better. Make sure the stand fits the measurements of existing refrigerator and can take the heavy load of your refrigerator weight. Few stand models have adjustable length and width to tackle measurement issues.
Refrigerator Deodorizer
Afraid to put non veg and vegetables in fridge because of smells. Have you faced situation where food smell attacks the room when you open fridge door. Refrigerator deodorizer is at your service to resolve the problem. Deodorizer absorbs the food smells and additionally controls the growth of bacteria. One quick home tip on absorbing smells -keep one slice of bread openly, it will absorb few smells of meat.
Air tight refrigerator boxes and bottles
Air tights boxes are great way to organize stuff in your refrigerator. Initially it is hailed as space optimizers and soon they are turned as food protectors from frostbites. Yes, when fruits and vegetables are exposed to direct cool air they get frostbites, kind of coldness marks that you can see. To avoid such issues even single door refrigerators comes with vegetables boxes and high end refrigerators comes with so many compartments to protect from frostbites. In case you have so much open space in the fridge this is the best way. Similar to boxes you can buy some bottles to keep the water cold. Most of themodels comes with bottle holders. Of Course high end models comes with water dispensers, but otherwise you can buy some fridge bottles to keep the water. Milano, Tupperware and Cello are few well known brands.
Ice trays
Basic single door refrigerator comes with couple of ice trays. High end refrigerators comes with ice dispensers. Say you have normal fridge and you have high requirements of ice then you can buy additional ice trays. Look for non breakable ice trays. Well designed ice trays take significantly less time to form the ice. Other spare parts are well know brands in ice tray manufacturing. Ice trays comes in many designs you can have fun choosing different style ice cubes.
Refrigerator magnets
Refrigerator magnets are decorative items to enrich your creativity and keep you memories. Say you have visited a tourist place like Simla you can buy refrigerator magnet showcasing Simla city and paste it on fridge door. It is magnet hence it directly sticks to fridge door and you can move around on the door easily. Not only that you can capture your special days like birthday and marriage anniversary and paste it on the door. There are many brands like Alchemy Chemicals, Alpha Industries, Barcelona, Bcreative, PosterGuy, meSleep, Thoughtroad, Marvel, Lion Souvenirs, Seven Rays. You can buy these fridge magnets online too. Not only that there are many online websites which sells such magnets exclusively like chumbak.com. There are many colorful and aesthetically pleasing magnets avilabe as well.
Water and ice dispensers
Few models of Side-by-side, double door and triple door refrigerators comes with water dispensers. Water dispensers enables you to drink water without even opening the refrigerator door. It is very nice to have feature. Videocon 604 Ltr VPL60ZPS Side by Side Refrigerator is one of such good refrigerator with water dispenser.
Removable anti fungal gasket
Removable anti fungal gasket is amazing feature. As the name suggest it is removable so you can remove and clean them easily. The anti fungal function make sure fungal and bacteria do not grow in the refrigerator.
It's the smart way to select the products without reading buying guides defrost thermostat

Make the best purchase decision with the help of Refrigerator selector.

How Perfume Bottle Designs Affect Your Perception
Imagine being asked to capture a landscape with so much color, texture, and detail that the picture springs to life on canvas, transporting even the most casual observer to that exact location and moment in time. The only catch (and it's a big one) is that you can't see the place you're supposed to illustrate, and no one is able to describe it to you, either. That's because technically, it doesn't exist yet.

Welcome to the enigmatic world of fragrance bottle design.

It's true that once you peel away the layers of mystery and artistry, perfume bottles serve a pretty basic function. Yes, they're lovely to behold — their crystal necks and flower-bulb stoppers like perfect glass gardens. But at the end of the day, they’re designed to hold and dispense liquid with the same efficiency as any humble household cleaner. No wonder most of us assume that the real stars of the fragrance universe are the precious ingredients inside the bottle — those powdery florals and heavy-lidded ouds that conjure memories and emotions and daydreams. But just like so many objects rendered in glass, perfume bottles offer us a slightly distorted — if not totally reverse — version of reality.

"Sometimes we have to design the bottle even before the fragrance has been made," says Fabien Baron, the legendary designer, photographer, and filmmaker behind some of the most successful fragrance launches in history, including Calvin Klein CK One. "The designers are actually inspiring the perfumers and giving them ideas."

It may sound contrary to the way we imagine things are done behind the scenes, but this outside-in approach is the industry standard — and has been for decades. "In 1992, Jean-Claude Ellena told me he wanted to play with a green tea note for Bulgari Eau Parfumée au Thé Vert," says Thierry De Baschmakoff, the Grasse-born designer who's been developing packaging for top fashion and beauty brands for more than 25 years. "That was the first and the last time I actually knew what was going inside the bottle I was making." As with everything that relates to fragrance, the key factor dictating the design process is time. Because it takes longer to build a bottle than to build a perfume, says De Baschmakoff, the former usually precedes the latter — and ultimately gives it shape.

The idea of working from a blank canvas may have its artistic appeal, but it doesn't necessarily translate into creative freedom for bottle designers. If anything, it requires them to be even more thoughtful and deliberate in their approach. "I can design you a beautiful bottle, but there are billions of beautiful bottles out there," says Baron. "That isn't the point. It's about matching the history and the values and the psyche of the brand to a cultural moment and then aligning all of those elements into one clear message... The story is the most important thing."

Without a cohesive story to translate the world of a fragrance, says Baron, the entire project falls apart at the seams. "Even if the perfume is amazing, people won't buy it if they don't understand it. They need to feel a connection or it just doesn't work."

It might not seem logical to think that a perfume's image is more important than its smell, but then again, the fragrance industry hasn't grown into a multibillion-dollar affair by selling us cold, hard facts. Just consider: Chanel No. 5 rarely performs well in blind smell tests; our modern sensibilities are accustomed to lighter, airier compositions. But housed in its classic glass flacon, the fragrance is a global best seller. "People love the story and what it stands for," says Baron of the full, iconic package. Psychologically (and maybe even biologically), this makes sense. Think of how we grow to appreciate the little quirks and imperfections in the people we fall in love with. The stronger our emotional connection, the more beauty we see.

That's why the art of dropper bottle design has acquired new weight in an era where consumers often go online to experience fragrance instead of walking up to a store counter. Without the benefit of touch, human interaction, and the alchemy of scent on skin, people need something else to engage their senses and ignite their interest. And more often than not, the perfume bottle is what fills that virtual space. "It's the first form of communication and the first form of contact that people have with the scent," says De Baschmakoff. "So of course it has to resonate."

The trick is to design a bottle that resonates across the board — no small feat. A perfume can mean anything to anyone. Nina Ricci L'Air du Temps reminds me of my mother; it reminds my mother of balmy summer nights in Austria. But the bottle itself is a fixed quantity. It feels the same in our hands, it looks the same on our shelf, and it releases the same nimbus cloud of scent. It connects us.

The story behind a car perfume bottle is just as heady and complex as the fragrance inside. Below, we asked designers who have dreamed up some of our favorite bottles in recent years to distill their creative vision.

All products featured on Allure are independently selected by our editors. However, when you buy something through our retail links, we may earn an affiliate commission.

"I grew up in the countryside, so I felt very close to nature and the people who cultivate the land. When my mother and I decided to collaborate on a collection of natural fragrances, it was very important that we partner with local artisans who shared our love of creativity and know-how," says Baptiste Bouygues, who launched Ormaie. Based in Paris, the brand produces scents made with sustainable, nonsynthetic ingredients. "I worked with Jade Lombard, our artistic director, to design the bottles, and then we set out to find the right craftsmen to bring them to life. Our glassmaker cuts recycled glass into bottles with 12 facets. To me, they represent the hours on a watch, because we put time into everything we do. Each bottle has a hand-carved topper sculpted from sustainable beechwood. The print shop that does our labels still operates a 19th-century Heidelberg machine. All of these components give our products an emotional, soulful quality. In French, the words beau (beautiful) and bon (good) are very close. To make something beautiful, it also has to be good."

Engineering Essentials: Types of Hydraulic Hose
To say that hose is an important part of a hydraulic system is a huge understatement. The flexibility of hose enables components to be positioned in the most efficient or convenient places, because the hose has the ability to bend around corners, through tight spaces, or across long distances.

Yet these days, there seems to be as many different types of hose as there are telephone long-distance carriers. How does a designer tell one from the other? Isn't there an easy way to choose or compare hoses?

The SAE standards
SAE answers those questions with its J517 hydraulic hose standard. This LPG hose standard serves as the most popular benchmark in the realm of industrial hydraulics today. More specifically, J517 is a set of guidelines that applies to the current SAE 100R series of hoses. Currently, 16 such hose styles exist, and they are designated as 100R1 through 100R16 (see descriptions, pages A105 and 106). Each of the styles must meet a set of dimensional and performance characteristics as set forth by SAE. However, SAE issues no approval source lists, certification, or letters of approval-conformance to these standards by manufacturers is strictly voluntary. In short, the standards only assure a similarity of products among different manufacturers.

Hydraulic hose construction
Modern hydraulic hose typically consists of at least three parts: an inner tube that carries the fluid, a reinforcement layer, and a protective outer layer.

The inner tube must have some flexibility and needs to be compatible with the type of fluid it will carry. Commonly used compounds include synthetic rubber, thermoplastics, and PTFE, sometimes called Teflon. The reinforcement layer consists of one or more sheaths of braided wire, spiral-wound wire, or textile yarn. The outer layer is often weather-, oil-, or abrasion-resistant, depending upon the type of environment the hose is designed for.

Not surprisingly, hydraulic hoses have a finite life. Proper sizing and use of the correct type of TPR LPG hose will certainly extend the life of a hose assembly, but there are many different factors that affect a hose's lifespan. SAE identifies some of the worst offenses as:

flexing the hose to less than the specified minimum bend radius
twisting, pulling, kinking, crushing, or abrading the hose
operating the hydraulic system above maximum or below minimum temperature
exposing the hose to rapid or transient rises (surges) in pressure above the maximum operating pressure, and
intermixing hose, fittings, or assembly equipment not recommended as compatible by the manufacturer or not following the manufacturer's instructions for fabricating hose assemblies.
Selecting the proper hose
Here are seven recommended steps the system designer should follow during the hose and coupling selection process. To help determine the proper hose for an application, use the acronym STAMPED - from Size, Temperature, Application, Materials, Pressure, Ends, and Delivery. Here is what to consider in each area:

Size - In order to select the proper hose size for replacement, it is important to measure the inside and natural gas hose diameters exactly using a precision-engineered caliper, as well as the length of the hose. Hose OD is particularly important when hose-support clamps are used or when hoses are routed through bulkheads. Check individual hose specification tables for ODs in suppliers' catalogs. When replacing a hose assembly, always cut the new hose the same length as the one being removed. Moving components of the equipment may pinch or even sever too long a hose. If the replacement hose is too short, pressure may cause the hose to contract and be stretched, leading to reduced service life.

Changes in hose length when pressurized range between +2% to 4% while hydraulic mechanisms are in operation. Allow for possible shortening of the hose during operation by making the hose lengths slightly longer than the actual distance between the two connections.

Temperature - All hoses are rated with a maximum working temperature ranging from 200° to 300° F based on the fluid temperature. Exposure to continuous high temperatures can lead to hoses losing their flexibility. Failure to use hydraulic oil with the proper viscosity to hold up under high temperatures can accelerate this problem. Always follow the hose manufacturer's recommendations.

Exceeding these temperature recommendations can reduce hose life by as much as 80%. Depending on materials used, acceptable temperatures may range from -65° F (Hytrel and winterized rubber compounds) to 400° F (PTFE). External temperatures become a factor when hoses are exposed to a turbo manifold or some other heat source.

When hoses are exposed to high external and internal temperatures concurrently, there will be a considerable reduction in hose service life. Insulating sleeves can help protect hose from hot equipment parts and other high temperature sources that are potentially hazardous. In these situations, an additional barrier is usually required to shield hydraulic fluid from a potential source of ignition.

Application - Will the selected hose meet bend radius requirements? This refers to the minimum bend radius (usually in inches) that a hydraulic hose must meet. Exceeding this bend radius (using a radius smaller than recommended) is likely to injure the hose reinforcement and reduce hose life.

Route high-pressure hydraulic lines parallel to machine contours whenever possible. This practice can help save money by reducing line lengths and minimizing the number of hard-angle, flow-restricting bends. Such routing also can protect lines from external damage and promote easier servicing.

Materials - It is mandatory to consult a compatibility chart to check that the tube compound is compatible with the fluid used in the system. Elevated temperature, fluid contamination, and concentration will affect the chemical compatibility of the tube and fluid. Most hydraulic hoses are compatible with petroleum-based oils. Note that new readily biodegradeable or green fluids may present a problem for some csa natural gas hose.

Pressure capabilities - Hose working pressure must always be chosen so that it is greater than or equal to the maximum system pressure, including pressure spikes. Pressure spikes greater than the published working pressure will significantly shorten hose life.

Hose ends - The coupling-to-hose mechanical interface must be compatible with the hose selected. The proper mating thread end must be chosen so that connection of the mating components will result in leak-free sealing.

There are two general categories of couplings to connect most types of hose: the permanent type (used primarily by equipment manufacturers, large-scale rebuilders, and maintenance shops) and the field-attachable type.

Permanently attached couplings are cold-formed onto the hose with powered machinery. They are available for most rubber and thermoplastic hoses and offer a wide range of dependable connections at low cost. Assemblies made in the field with portable machines are relatively simple; these machines are economical and easy to operate. In most cases, it is not necessary to skive the cover. These couplings are less complicated to install than other types.

Field-attachable couplings are classified as screw-together and clamp-type. The screw-together coupling attaches to the hose by turning the outer coupling shell over the outside diameter of the hose. The coupling insert is then screwed into the coupling shell. A clamp-type coupling has a 2-piece outer shell that clamps onto the hose OD with either two or four bolts and nuts.
This hose should be used in low pressure and vacuum applications, with petroleum- and water-based hydraulic fluids, within a temperature range from -40° to 100° C.
It is constructed with an inner tube of oil-resistant synthetic rubber, a reinforcement consisting of a ply, or plies, of woven or braided textile fibers with a suitable spiral of body wire, and an oil- and weather-resistant synthetic rubber cover.

This hose should be used with petroleum- and water-based hydraulic fluids, within a temperature range from -40° to 100° C.
It is constructed with an inner tube of oil-resistant synthetic rubber reinforced with two textile braids separated by a high-tensile-strength steel-wire braid. All of the braids are impregnated with an oil- and mildew-resistant synthetic rubber compound.

This high-pressure csa natural gas hose kit should be used with synthetic, petroleum- and water-based hydraulic fluids within a temperature range from -40° to 93° C.
It consists of a thermoplastic inner tube resistant to hydraulic fluids with suitable synthetic-fiber reinforcement and a hydraulic fluid- and weather-resistant thermoplastic cover. Nonconductive 100R8 is identified with an orange cover and appropriate lay line. Its pressure capacity is similar to that of 100R2.


This hose should be used with petroleum- and water-based hydraulic fluids within a temperature range from -40° to 100° C.
It consists of an inner tube of oil-resistant synthetic rubber, six spiral plies of heavy wire wrapped in alternating directions, and an oil- and weather-resistant synthetic rubber cover. A ply, or braid, of suitable material may be used over the inner tube and/or over the wire reinforcement to anchor the synthetic rubber to the wire.
In either case, the coupling has limited potential for reuse because the threads distort during attachment.

To ensure the correct-size coupling is used when replacing an assembly, the number of threads per inch and thread diameter of the original coupling must be determined. Thread pitch gages are available for identifying the number of threads per inch. A caliper can measure both inside and outside dimensions of the threads. ODs are measured on male couplings, while IDs are measured on female couplings.

In most situations, the only differences between an SAE coupling and an imported coupling are the thread configuration and the seat angle. International thread ends can be metric, measured in mm, but also include BSP (British Standard Pipe) threads, which are measured in inches. Knowing the country of origin provides a clue as to what type of thread end is used. DIN (Deutsche Industrial Norme) fittings began in Germany and now are found throughout Europe, while BSP is found on British equipment. Japanese Komatsu machinery uses Komatsu fittings with metric threads, while other Japanese equipment most likely uses JIS (Japanese Industrial StandardBSP threads), or, in some cases, BSP with straight or tapered threads.

Delivery - How available is the product? Is it unique? How soon can it be delivered to the distributor or end user? It may be preferable to consider several options to maximize flexibility and avoid the delays that can result from relying on components that are unavailable or in short supply.