A Guide to Bone China
Bone china is considered to be the most refined and luxurious of tableware materials, adding sophisticated classical and contemporary design to any table - whether during breakfast, lunch or dinner.
If you're in the market for purchasing bone china tableware, the Wedgwood Guide to Bone China will answer some common questions regarding this beautiful material, as well as providing guidance on how to choose and care for your bone china tableware.
Bone china is a durable, lightweight and elegant material that is most commonly used for the creation of tableware and teaware such as plates, bowls, mugs and teacups. Bone china is made from china clay, china stone and bone ash (made from animal bones).
To create bone china, either china clay, china stone, bone ash, or a combination of the three is combined with porcelain clay and fired at a slightly lower temperature than porcelain. This produces a light, delicate material with a milky, almost translucent appearance.
Investing in bone china tableware comes with many benefits for your at-home eating experience. Bone china is the strongest material of the porcelain and china ceramics, meaning that it is likely to last through everyday use and the usual accidental slips of the hand or knocks off the table. Bone china is a luxurious and precious material, so will last for decades and can have amazing sentimental value when passed down through generations. It brings a perception of elegance and sophisticated taste to dining at home, making every day a special occasion!
Bone china is considered to be the highest quality ceramic used for tableware, and is perfect for both everyday use and special occasions due to the fact that it’s strong, durable, mostly chip-resistant, and stunningly beautiful.
For an interesting fact, the durability of bone china is actually based on the percentage of bone ash content present within the product. The traditional formulation for bone china is about 25% kaolin, 25% Cornish stone and 50% bone ash. The industry minimum for bone content is 30% or higher.
Is bone china microwave safe? Yes! In fact, it’s microwave safe, dishwasher safe and oven safe.
Here are some tips for washing your tableware set:
Wash dishes straight away to remove any acidic or sticky food residue.
When handwashing, wash each dish individually using a mild liquid detergent and a non-abrasive cloth. Having a plastic tuc in the sink is also a good idea, as it will protect the china from the harsh stainless steel of the sink.
If using a dishwasher, take care not to overload the rack, and keep metal items away from your fine bone china - even light contact can scratch, chip or crack your dishes.
Here are some tips for keeping your Wedgwood china in stunning condition:
Soak your pieces in white vinegar for three minutes before rinsing and towel drying them to remove hard water spots.
Remove coffee stains from mugs (as well as fork marks from plates) by rubbing a paste of baking soda and water over the tableware before rinsing and drying.
To prevent scratching and chipping your fine bone china tableware set, put it in a fabric storage case, or put segments of fabric, tissue paper or napkins between each piece when stacking.
What Exactly is Bone China?
There's something quite elegant and magical about drinking a cup of tea from real bone china.
This popular British belief is apparently true, bone china does make the tea taste better and there are many reasons for this. Bone china doesn’t absorb any of the tea aromas and flavours like other ceramics do and therefore providing a full-on tea tasting experience. The thinner and lighter bone china material adds a very dainty and classy feel. While the creamy-white translucent colour of the china perfectly compliments the hue of tea liquor.
However, because of the possible unethical practices of using bone ash in bone china, some companies are choosing to add jade as an alternative.
Real bone china should not contain any lead, is non toxic and is safe to use. Bone china is made from porcelain, bone ash and kaolin (a type of clay).
Bone china is usually made from cow bones. Just as the name suggests, bone china contains animals parts and is not for everyone. It’s rare, however, some china has been found to contain human bone ash! In the past, a loved one’s ashes could be added to china for a keepsake.
What is a Promotional Bone China Mug?
In the ceramic family, there are quite a number of categories. Each as important, if not better than the last creation. Some of the popular categories include stoneware, pottery, earthenware as well as bone china. Presently, bone china mugs are part of the most sought after collectables. Although still manufactured in bulk and available for daily use, bone china can be beautiful and fragile, befitting use as a decorative piece. Bone china creations are readily available in an array of versatile, befitting designs that are ready for consumer selection.
Since bone china mugs are dishwasher and microwave safe, they are an excellent for hosting and home use. They can actually be used in bulk and stocked on top of each other to be washed or used at a later date, without the fear of breaking. This feature makes the bone mug wonderfully practical and a joy to have in the home.
Since bone china mugs are dishwasher and microwave safe, they are an excellent for hosting and home use. They can actually be used in bulk and stocked on top of each other to be washed or used at a later date, without the fear of breaking. This feature makes the bone mug wonderfully practical and a joy to have in the home.
In the market, there is a wide selection to pick and choose from. There are contemporary and classic bone china designs that come with every imaginable design from wavy patterns to abstract art. Made out of a soft combination of kaolin (25%), bone ash, (50%) and feldspathic material (25%), bone china is a soft-paste kind of porcelain. Given that is contains calculated calcium phosphate as well as a significant percentage of animal bone in the form of phosphate, bone china is one of the strongest porcelains ever invented. Similar to stoneware, bone china is made up of different mineral items. Hence it tends to be vitrified as a result of these highly different mineral properties. Bone china is produced in the same likeness as porcelain. One of the unique qualities behind bone china mugs is the fact that bone ash is actually taken from cattle bones that are vetoed for the lowest quantities of iron. Prior to undergoing de-gelatinisation, the cattle bones are crushed and then calcined at temperatures of up to 1250°C. Such high temperatures burn everything and result in bone ash.
The benefits of using porcelain tableware
For millions of years, porcelains have been used to create decorative kitchenware.
In the ceramics family, porcelain is the supreme material. Porcelain was first invented in China and has informally come to be known as “china” or “fine china”.
The finer the china, the more expensive the product becomes. The properties of porcelain such as strength, elasticity, permeability and translucency has made porcelain a very durable kitchenware and a complete value of money. Other than these, they are also popular and a good choice to make because of the following reasons:
Related: Differences Between Stoneware, Earthenware, And Porcelain
1. Heat Resistant
Porcelain is an excellent and very practical material for microwave or oven dishes because it distributes the heat through the elements evenly. The heat resistant nature of porcelain can be proven by it being fired at very high temperature during its creation. Porcelain is suitable for use in ovens, microwaves and freezers.
2. Durable
Despite its fragile appearance, Porcelain is one of the strongest and most durable dinnerwares you should consider getting. Dinnerware made of Porcelain is durable and nonporous due to it being fired at a very high temperature during its creation.
3. Non-Stick & Easy To Clean
Due to its fine smooth glassy texture, porcelain provides users with ease during plating and cleaning after dinner. With just water and dish soap you can get grease stains off instantly.
4. Versatile
Porcelain tableware come in different colours, shapes and sizes. Making it suitable for any events and occasions. You can experiment and play around with different colours and see how it matches the theme of the meal.
5. Huge Selection Options & Affordable
Porcelain tableware is a great buy as comes in different variations of colours, shapes and sizes. Porcelain allows you to get a bang for your buck with the ability to explore different dining styles with a limited budget. You can aim for a classy style or maybe get some colours on your dining table.
Give your kitchen a makeover by using porcelain kitchen wares that not only give you a visually pleasing appearance but also these numerous benefits that we have talked about.
What are the differences between porcelain and stoneware?
When it comes to choosing the best material for your dinnerware, bakeware and cookware, the choices offered in the market are multiple. There is all the family of ceramics (earthenware, stoneware, porcelain and bone china) but also glass, melamine or plastic.
To answer the question, we will focus on only the ceramic made dinnerware. To understand the pros and cons of each material, we will study each one of them and gather key things to know about each material so we can understand the differences between porcelain and stoneware and bone china.When it comes to choosing the best material for your dinnerware, bakeware and cookware, the choices offered in the market are multiple. There is all the family of ceramics (earthenware, stoneware, porcelain and bone china) but also glass, melamine or plastic.
To answer the question, we will focus on only the ceramic made dinnerware. To understand the pros and cons of each material, we will study each one of them and gather key things to know about each material so we can understand the differences between porcelain and stoneware and bone china.

Stoneware vs Porcelain when it comes to baking
Avoid using bone chine for warming: when it comes to heating and baking, the choice is really only between Stoneware and Porcelain.
A few facts:
Heating and cooking: as a general rule, avoid the sudden temperature changes (from the fridge, to the oven, to the dishwasher). Both stoneware and porcelain should not be placed on direct heat EXCEPT the range of cookware by REVOL: REVOLUTION (also compatible on induction and electric heat). Both stoneware and porcelain can be used in the microwave.
Cleaning: usually both materials are dishwasher safe
Baking: porcelain being non porous – porcelain dishes are a great options to bake! The heat distributes evenly and the baking will be perfect. Also, glazed porcelain is naturally non stick. So you will enjoy baking with a baker made of porcelain. Like for the Belle cuisine collection: these bakers will bake anything evenly and will make every recipe delicious and easy to make.

Factors to Consider When Buying a Money Counting Machine
A money counting machine is one of the most useful tools you can have. They can drastically reduce counting errors and help to ensure that your accounts are accurate. They can save you time. because they count money much faster than a flesh-and-blood money counter. But counting isn't all they do.
Money counting machines can also detect counterfeit bills, and they can do so much more accurately than we can. They can incorporate technology that makes the counterfeit detection process much more reliable and quicker.
When shopping for a money counting machine, there are a few things to look for. Price and functionality are among the most important factors to consider. You need a money counter that does all the things you need it to do, and nothing more. So, you're looking to avoid both over and under functionality, all without spending too much money.
Since a cash counter is supposed to make your life easier, it should be easy to use. You'll need to choose between manual and automatic, and you'll want to consider hopper capacity, as well. Not all money counters have counterfeit detection capabilities, so you'll have to decide if that's a feature you want. Finally, you'll need to consider whether or not you want to have mixed-denomination value detection.
Price and Functionality
We'll start with functionality. As with any other gadget you can buy, there are all kinds of features that can be included in a money counter, but the actual need for many of these features is questionable, to say the least.
Instead of being wowed by features, focus on just what you need. A large supermarket has need of more features than a small business. If you run a small business or any business in which all of the cash will be placed in a register, a basic bill counter may be all you need.
These bill counters do not sense denomination value, they just count the number of bills and scan them with counterfeit detection technology. Since the money is coming out of cash registers, it is already sorted by denomination, which makes a basic cash counting machine perfectly suited to your needs. Bill counting can be time consuming, and this machine will save you a lot of time.
Ease of Use
A money counting machine should be as easy as possible to use. As with price, the difficulty increases with each additional feature. A simple bill counter can be as easy as putting the bills in the hopper and turning the counter on.
Even though the difficulty of use increases with each added feature, more complex money counters can and should be easy to use. In fact, the only additional steps there should be are, at most, a few buttons to push before the machine starts to count. This should amount to telling the machine which currency is being used or how you want the bills sorted.
How Do Counterfeit Detectors Work?
A counterfeit money detector can come in many forms, but in its essence, it’s a machine that detects the security features of bank notes in order to determine whether any given bill is counterfeit or genuine. It uses one or several different methods of detection to verify bank notes through their security features. Some of these methods include UV, watermark, and metal thread detection. The more methods of detection that are used, the more accurate the machine will be as it is able to verify more security features.
UV Counterfeit Detection
UV is the most commonly used counterfeit detection method—it is seen in most of the lower-end devices with the lowest price points. A UV detector verifies the UV marks on authentic notes by shining ultraviolet light onto the bills. These UV marks are created through the use of non-visible dyes that are only visible under UV light. If the UV printed images glow when subjected to the UV light, then the bank note is expected to be authentic.
Magnetic Counterfeit Detection
Some counterfeit money detectors also use magnetic detection to identify the magnetic ink and metal threads placed on strategic areas of bank notes. This is also a common type of counterfeit detection.
Watermark Counterfeit Detection
In addition, some detectors will also use light to view watermarks that are built into authentic bank notes. These watermarks cannot be seen by the naked eye.
Benefits of a Coin Counter
A coin counter could revolutionize the way you handle cash in your business, and free up your valuable time. Here are the top five benefits you'll get to look forward to when you invest in a coin counter.
1. Save Time for the Things That Matter
You may still need to sort your nickels and your dimes, but once you've done so, it's time to let the coin counter spring into action. The machine effortlessly counts coins of the same denomination, and it will finish the tallying before anyone else on your team can do it.
Simply set a target amount and let the counter get to work. The machine will stop when it hits the target, and you can add more coins to keep the process rolling. The counter will also give you a running total as it counts up your coins.
While you leave the machine to do its sums, you and your team can tend to other tasks in the business. Maybe that means those to-do list tasks that keep hanging around and hanging around finally get crossed off the list. It might mean you can spend more time helping that one last customer or tidying up so you're ready for opening tomorrow.
2. Improve Your Accuracy
To err is human, or so the old saying goes. If you're still letting your team count up coins manually, you know this to be all too true. It may not happen every day, but the more time you spend counting coins, the more likely a mistake is.
The bigger problem is that it takes time to sort out those mistakes. One small error can multiply into much more wasted time as you try to spot the error and correct it.
A coin counter can solve this problem. The machine is more accurate than your human team can ever be, which means fewer mistakes and less wasted time.
3. Decrease Costs and Losses
Coin counting mistakes cost you more than time. They cost you money too. All that change adds up to a bigger problem in your books. Now multiply that loss over a week or a year.
Your new coin counter is far superior to anything humans can do, so you don't have to worry about losing out on your hard-earned cash.
4. Keep Your Hands Clean
It's no secret that cash is dirty. Coins are passed from hand to hand, and they've likely touched a lot of filthy surfaces before dropping into your till. Keep your employees' hands clean and germ-free by letting the machine handle the coins.
Shortchanged: How accurate are automatic coin counting machines?
Loose change can be all over the house and a nuisance. But at Coinstar machines, you dump your coins in and they give you cash back, charging a 10.9 percent processing fee on your total.
You expect 100 percent accuracy for what you put in and we wanted to hold them to it. So, we took coins of all denominations to ten coin counting machines. Our first stop was to the Coinstar machine inside the Kroger on Jackman Road. We brought in $25 in coins and counted it twice for accuracy. The cash used included 70 quarters, 50 dimes, 40 nickels, and 50 pennies. As it counted our coins, our cash back kept going up. The processing fee took out $2.72, so we should have received a cash voucher for $22.28. That's exactly what we received.
Next was the Coinstar in the Kroger at Monroe and Secor. It was also accurate.
But at the Coinstar in the Walmart on West Central Avenue in Sylvania Township, what happened there was very surprising. As the coins went in, we noticed something was wrong. We didn't get back what we put in, even with that processing fee already taken out.
After leaving the store and the Coinstar machine, we took a look at what we got back. It was only $20.05. We were definitely shortchanged by that machine, losing credit for several of our quarters.
We put in 70 quarters. One was rightfully rejected because it was a Canadian quarter. But instead of getting credit for 69 quarters, we only got credit for 59. We were shortchanged $2.50.
But the errors didn't end there. We got credit for 51 dimes, when we only put in 50, and 43 nickels when we put in only 40. We gained some back, but in the end, were shortchanged by the machine by $2.25.
Mike Klear is an inspector and the manager of Lucas County's Department of Weights and Measures. He told us the state does not give counties the authority to regulate Coinstar machines.
"Do I think they should be tested? Yes, I do believe they should be tested. Currently, they are tested by the company themselves, but they should have an entity watching how they test," Klear said.
When we put coins in the Coinstar in the Walmart in Perrysburg, the machine got backed up. It ended our transaction, with coins left on the tray. We combined the total with a second transaction and got credit for 49 pennies instead of 50. This was not a big deal at all, but we were still shortchanged.
We wanted Coinstar's response. A spokesperson told us:
"Our goal at Coinstar is to provide consumers with a convenient, reliable and accurate coin counting solution. With 25 years in business, processing more than 1 billion transactions, we have a zero tolerance policy on our accuracy tests; if a kiosk doesn't meet our standards, it's shut down and fixed."
Benefits Of A Massage Gun
A massage gun is known to offer the same results as a deep tissue massage. The beauty of this is that you can get all the benefits within minutes in your most convenient time while following your schedule. It makes it easier for most people to manage their health, whether they are in sports or they are just fitness lovers.
These massage guns have been in high demand in recent years, which can only be traced to the many benefits they have to offer, from relieving aches and pain to increased blood circulation among others. Worthy of note is that it also helps shorten recovery time while it does all of these.
1. Sports Performance, Injury Prevention, and Recovery
Percussive massage provided by a massage gun helps improve the muscle contraction, which results in the lengthening and strengthening of the muscles and fascial tissues. Making massage therapy part of your lifestyle and post-workout routine is a great way to relieve stress. The main purpose of a massage is to help relax the muscles and relieve tension in the body, which would help shorten the muscle recovery time between workouts, as toxic debris are constantly being eliminated to allow the muscles bounce back within the shortest possible time.
For every deep tissue massage with the massage guns, fluids and tension are released within the deep muscles and this results in improved circulation, as the blood and tissue cells exchange substances which help boost tissue metabolism. The supply of nutrients and oxygen is also improved due to the massage, therefore increasing blood circulation throughout the body. It also helps prevent overtraining due to the sedating effect it has on the nervous system. It heals and prevents injuries, as the improved circulation helps break down adhesions and the increased production of nutrients and fluids could help with quick tissue repair.
Sports performance is also improved, as the massage guns help increase power and performance, which makes the muscles more flexible and efficient.
2. Advanced Vibrational Healing & Powerful Pain Relief
Vibrational healing is a form of healing that is based on vibrations and subtle energies, without any dependence on other systems of healing. It is based on each person’s unique energy field and is known to be efficient. Interestingly, a massage gun provides this same benefit, as it delivers vibrations deep into the muscle by using the “percussive therapy” technique. The vibrations from the massage help improve blood and lymph circulation around the body, which helps produce more oxygen and nutrients into the muscles. The result of this is speedy recovery, improved range of motion, pain relief and relieving muscle fatigue and soreness. Pain in the neck, shoulders and lower back can easily be relieved with the advanced vibrating effect from massage guns.
3. Rehabilitation
Massage is known to be one of the most effective forms of injury rehabilitation therapy, as it not only speeds up the recovery process but also prevents re-injury. Massage guns work as a supplement to the standard injury rehabilitation process and encourage healing and recovery of atrophied muscles due to trauma or disease. Improved circulation into the muscles and fascial tissues helps the injured areas to become more flexible and heal within a short time.

Rotational Moulding: The Process & Advantages
Rotational moulding, also known as rotomoulding, is a plastics moulding technology which is ideal for making hollow articles. It is a casting technic but unlike most other plastics processes there is no pressure involved. Moulds for the process are relatively inexpensive as they do not have to withstand pressure and therefore relatively short production runs can be made very economically.
Rotomoulding is used to make a very diverse range of products. The process offers the product designer exceptional freedom as just about any shape can be produced. There is almost no limit to the size of mouldings and there are literally thousands of applications.
The Process
The concept of rotational moulding is very simple. A plastic material, normally in powder form is placed into a hollow mould, usually made from cast aluminium or fabricated from sheet steel. The mould is closed and rotated slowly on two axis. The mould is then heated in an oven whilst rotating and the polymer gradually melts and ‘lays-up’ on the inside of the mould. Once the polymer powder has fully melted the mould is moved to a cooling station and cooled usually with air and sometimes a fine mist of water. As the mould cools the part solidifies. When the material has finally cooled sufficiently to release away from the mould surface the process is stopped and the product is taken out of the mould (de-moulded).
Whilst the concept of rotational moulding is extremely simple anyone who has ever been involved in the process will tell you that it is in fact extremely complicated. It is a casting process and there is normally no pressure involved which means that the material cannot be controlled in the same way as high pressure processes such as injection moulding. There are many variables that can affect production and the end product such as ambient temperature and humidity, type of mould, material specification and powder quality.
Materials
Today the industry is heavily dependent on Polyethylene (PE) and 97% of rotomoulded products are made from this material. Polyethylene is a versatile, easily mouldable and readily available polymer which has come to dominate the process. Rotomoulding is a casting technique in which powder is nearly always used rather than granules, meaning the material must be ground. Polyethylene is relatively easy to grind at ambient temperatures.
The development of other polymers has been hindered by the fact that the process is relatively long and therefore aggressive on polymers, however there is some usage of PVC (usually in liquid plastisol form), Polypropylene and Polyamide (PA6, PA11 & PA12). Many of these non-Polyethylene materials are difficult to grind and most need to be made into powder using cryogenic grinding – that is freeze grinding, which is a more costly process. There is a welcome increase in R&D to expand the range of materials available to the industry.
Uses And Advantages Of High-Quality Plastic Pulverizer Machine
When deliberating on high-quality pulverizer machines, take a look at the plastic pulverizer machine.
The plastic pulverizer is a piece of magnificent equipment used in crushing plastic into small and tiny sizes.
Former plastic pulverizers are highly difficult and complex and the results it produced are inaccurate sometimes.
To solve this problem customized powder pulverizer machines are introduced, and they generate colorful masterbatch.
All thanks to the manufacturer of the high-quality pulverizer. With this machine, you have the chance to achieve standard quality and colorful powder used in the manufacturing and compounding of masterbatch.
Also, the plastic pulverizer machines give the perfect and equal size of particles which ensures an adequate blending and mixing of additives.
Furthermore, plastic compounds such as Polycarbonate (PC), Polyamide (PA), and Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) are processed in an ambient heat through this processor.
Once this is ongoing, the downstream fan will transfer the end product into a cyclone from the disc mill.
One notable thing is that this whole process is totally mechanical but the control cabinet will maintain and regulate all the activities.
However, for advanced and latest high-quality pulverizer to smash your plastic materials, buy PVC pulverizer from a reliable manufacturer.
Obviously, this is the most recommended option for your best processing services.
Materials That Can Be Ground Using Plastic Pulverizer Machine
PVC pulverizer machine can be used to grind many items such as buckets, bottles, pipes, and jugs.
After grinding, these materials are converted into granules which are afterward ready to be remolded into different other products.
A plastic granulator is normally large which allows it to grind much plastic at once.
More so, you can also buy PVC pulverizer which is smaller in size for home use.
High quality plastic pulverizer machine can be used to grind thermoplastic materials such as Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVA).
Other materials include Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), Polyester, cross-link, ABS, High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and Nylon.
When you buy PVC pulverizer, you can also use it to pulverize film waste, sheets, and tubes of soft and hard, impact, and brittle resistant materials.
High-quality pulverizer is easy to clean and maintain and has an economic option. It doesn't consume power and it has a robust design. In fact, time and effort are saved by its ease of operation.
Why You Should Go for an Air Cooler Over an Air Conditioner?
In the ongoing debate of air conditioners vs air coolers, we list down few important pointers that will offer a clear idea of why you should opt for an air cooler.
But first things first, should you buy an air cooler?
A cooler can be used by everyone, especially people living around hot and dry weather. One can choose from a dessert cooler, a window cooler or even a personal cooler, depending on the requirements.
Read on to know more about why to choose an air cooler over an air conditioner.
Have you ever wondered about how an AC or an air cooler functions and how does it affect the quality of air in your home?
An air conditioner circulates the internal air of the room over and over again, whereas an air cooler pulls fresh air from outside and then cools it down. Also, air cooler doesn’t make the air overly dry like an air conditioner. Because of the way it operates, an air cooler offers better quality of air for your room. So much so, that the air circulated from an air cooler is preferable for people with asthma or dust allergy.
Economical Alternative
When it comes to value for money, an air cooler definitely scores high over an AC. Even though both end up cooling the room, an AC can cost anything ranging from ₹30,000 to ₹60,000, whereas a cooler will be available from ₹5000 to ₹15,000. Also, apart from the initial cost of purchasing, even the operating cost of an air cooler is less than an AC. You can approximately expect 80% less electricity bill from a cooler as compared to an AC, making it economical in the long run.
Going green is something that concerns all of us, and air coolers trumps the card here as well. Air conditioners use CFC (Chlorofluorocarbon) and HFC (hydro-chlorofluorocarbons) as their refrigerant, which is quite harmful to the environment. On the other hand, air coolers are eco-friendlier, since they use water as the refrigerant.
Industrial Cooling Fans: Overview, Benefits, and Applications
It is quite common to see various types of fans in industrial facilities. They are used to regularize the airflow to various structures or parts of the building. There are several types of industrial fans, which are categorized based on their designs, applications, and so on. Industrial cooling fans and industrial cooling blowers are two types of industrial fans used across the industrial facility for cooling purposes. Do you want to know how these fans differ from other types?
This post gives an overview of industrial cooling fan, their beneficiary features, and industrial applications.
What are Industrial Cooling Fans?
Industrial fans are the mechanical devices that create fluid flow for industrial purposes. The industrial fans often considered as fluid displacers since the air or gas is displaced from one point to another due to the rotational motion of blades. The primary purpose of the industrial cooling fans is to blow cold air and drive hot air out of the environment. Therefore these industrial fans are also called industrial cooling blowers. However, cold air intake or hot air exhaust depends on the design and construction of the specific fan. Unlike other industrial fans, the cooling fans have large diameters, which help them produce large volumes of air and low pressures, as required in several environments. Regardless of the fan design, the fundamental components of industrial fan remain the same. They are discussed in detail in the next section.
Fundamental Components of an Industrial Cooling Fan Assembly
Industrial cooling fans comprise a motor, a rotor shaft, and the blades or impellers. These are the fundamental components of the assembly. Check out on the function of these fundamental components and other important features in a fan assembly.
Motor:
An electrical motor is the primary input source in an industrial cooling fan assembly. The motor can be AC or DC as per the design and performance requirements. The motor transfers’ electric power to the hub of the rotor shaft as the energy input.
Rotor Shaft:
The rotor shaft is connected to an electric motor with an intermediate hub. The hub transfers electrical energy to the rotor shaft. The shaft rotates on receiving this electrical energy. This all suggests the conversion of electrical energy into mechanical to get the desired output.
Impellers/Blades:
The blades or impellers are the components that cut through the surrounding air to form a fluid drag. The blades are mounted on the rotary shaft at a specific distance. The blades rotate to push or exhaust air drag. These blades can be designed in multiple shapes according to aerodynamic standards.
Fan Casing:
The fan casing is a metal casing that houses the whole assembly. The main purpose of fan casing is to protect the assembly from dust, external damage, as well as the environmental impact such as corrosion, moisture, dust, etc.
Fan Mountings:
The mountings are bearing on which the fans are fixed on. The industrial cooling fan assembly can be mounted by using a ball or sleeve bearings. The bearings are the foundation of the fan assembly therefore, the quality and function are very important.
These components of the industrial fan assembly remain constant irrespective of the types of industrial cooling fans.

Wpc Vs. Spc: What You Need To Know About Water-Resistant Vinyl Plank Flooring
What Is Rigid Core Flooring?
Rigid core flooring is the innovative vinyl flooring for today's demanding consumers. Available in both plank and tile shapes, it's a luxury material that can stand up to a lot of abuse, including water.
To understand rigid core, you have to move beyond the vinyl flooring you're familiar with. Standard vinyl flooring is a fairly thin, flexible material that is glued down to the sub floor. Rigid core is stiffer, thicker and sturdier, which gives it some unique advantages. One of its most-hyped pluses is its ability to handle water, but that's not the only check in the “pro” column. It can also handle sub floor imperfections, offer excellent sound insulation and superior comfort underfoot.
Here's where we get to the technical jargon: The assorted positives of vinyl plank flooring (or vinyl tile) depend on whether you go with a WPC or SPC construction.
How WPC and SPC Come into Play
Like engineered hardwood, luxury vinyl plank flooring is constructed from layers of material—typically four, though that can vary between manufacturers. Let's look at the different layers, starting with the surface:
Layer #1 is the wear layer. It's clear, durable and scratch-resistant.
Layer #2 is the vinyl layer, composed of multiple, compressed layers of vinyl. This layer facilitates the authentic embossing technology applied to the printed decorative film that lies between the wear layer and this vinyl layer.
Layer #3 is the rigid core layer. It's made from either wood plastic composite (WPC) or stone plastic composite, also referred to as a solid polymer core (SPC).
Layer #4 is the base layer. This is the bottom of your plank or tile, and it's usually made from foam or cork.
Many WPC and SPC options also feature an attached pad (underlayment) that provides sound absorption and allows for under floor heating systems.
What Is WPC?
Wood plastic composite flooring, or WPC flooring, is a vinyl plank or vinyl tile flooring with a rigid core that's made from either recycled wood pulp and plastic or polymer composites that are expanded with air. It's sometimes called “wood polymer composite flooring.” It is a light weight, low density construction that is warm and soft underfoot with greater comfort.
What Is SPC?
Stone plastic composite, solid polymer core, or SPC flooring, is a vinyl flooring material that has a rigid core made from powdered limestone, polyvinyl chloride and stabilizers. Sometimes, you might see it referred to as “stone polymer composite flooring.” It is dense, dimensionally stable, quiet and strong. Pure from Beauflor are great options in this category and both include an attached pad.
SPC and WPC – Key Differences to Know
Similar to dryback luxury vinyl flooring (which is the traditional type of luxury vinyl that requires an adhesive to install), SPC and WPC flooring are comprised of multiple layers of backing that are fused together. However, unlike dryback flooring, both flooring options feature a rigid core and are a harder product all around.
Because SPC’s core layer is comprised of limestone, it has a higher density in comparison to WPC, though is thinner overall. This makes it more durable compared to WPC. Its high density offers better resistance from scratches or dents from heavy items or furniture being placed on top of it and makes it less susceptible to expansion in cases of extreme temperature change.
One important thing to note is that although SPC and WPC are often marketed as being waterproof, they are actually water resistant. Though neither product is entirely waterproof if submerged underwater, topical spills or moisture should not be an issue if properly cleaned in a reasonable amount of time.
Applications
Rigid core products including WPC and SPC were originally created for commercial markets because of their durability. However, homeowners have started using rigid core as well because of its ease of installation, design options and durability. It is important to note that some SPC and WPC products vary from commercial to light commercial use, so it is best to always consult your manufacturer to know which warranty applies.
Another highlight for both SPC and WPC, aside from their easy-to-install click locking system, is that they do not require extensive subfloor prep prior to installation. Though installing over a flat surface is always a good practice to be in, floor imperfections like cracks or divots are more easily hidden with SPC or WPC flooring due to their rigid core composition.
And, when it comes to comfort, WPC is generally more comfortable underfoot and less dense than SPC due to the foaming agent it is typically comprised of. Because of this, WPC is especially well suited for environments where employees or patrons are constantly on their feet.
In addition to offering more cushion when walking, the foaming agent in WPC provides more sound absorption than SPC flooring does, although many manufacturers offer an acoustic backing that can be added to SPC. WPC or SPC with acoustic backing are ideal for settings where noise reduction is key such as classrooms or office spaces.
What's the Difference Between Lvt Vs. Lvp?
LVT (Luxury Vinyl Tile) and LVP (Luxury Vinyl Plank) are two different types of luxury vinyl flooring. LVT is vinyl flooring designed in a tile shape, whereas LVP is vinyl flooring designed in planks to resemble traditional hardwood floor planks.
Here are some more details on these two wonderful luxury vinyl flooring choices…
What's Luxury Vinyl?
Luxury vinyl is a specific type of vinyl flooring. Old-school vinyl flooring used to be offered in sheet form only, and therefore wasn't able to mimic the realistic natural materials that luxury vinyl floors now can. Modern LVT and LVP floors are now offered in countless patterns and colors, and designed so that they appear to look almost exactly like natural materials such as wood, stone, and tile. Some LVT and LVP flooring options are even textured to appear like these materials as well. Many LVT and LVP floors even have seams for grout, and the planks can come in narrow or wide styles, as can the tiles.
Are LVT and LVP floors waterproof?
Yes! Both LVT and LVP floors constructed from layers of plastic, so they're waterproof, making them an ideal flooring choice for any room in your house, especially kitchens, bathrooms, and basements. LVT and LVP floors are designed to withstand moisture, heavy foot traffic, and plenty of scratches and spills.
What's VCT flooring then?
VCT stands for Vinyl Composite or Vinyl Composition Tile flooring. Though VCT floors are also made with some vinyl in them, unlike LVT floors, they contain less plastic and more natural materials such as limestone. Because of this, VCT floors are more porous than LVT floors, and thus they are not as waterproof and require more maintenance.
What about Engineered Vinyl flooring?
Engineered Vinyl flooring, or Engineered Vinyl Plank (EVP), is a subset of LVPs. EVPs are simply even more durable than many LVP options, as they're built with the strongest high-density fiberboard core, and have a rigid stone-based core. EVPs are often considered the luxury vinyl planks on the market that most closely resemble real hardwood floors, but personal preference will often determine this for you!
What Is The Most Durable Garage Floor Covering?
Whether you use your garage as a car parking area, laundry area, or home gym, you want a floor that sustains your uses. A durable garage floor is an asset because it saves costs on floor repairs. It also gives you the freedom to maximize garage usage. A floor that sustains high traffic, resists damage and offers easy cleaning is crucial. While most garage floor finishes are durable, not all may match your needs. With this list of garage floor coverings, you can find the perfect floor finish. The right floor covering transforms your boring garage into a modern, inviting space.
Epoxy is one of the most durable garage coatings. You can lay it on your concrete subfloor to liven up your garage. It provides unique colorful hues, metallic and natural stone finishes. Once dry, the epoxy forms a hardened and thick coating. This layer protects your floors from scratches, dents, chemical spills and cracks. No matter what you drop on your garage floor, the epoxy will resist damage.
The installation process may take 3-5 days or longer, depending on the floor size. You need to find alternative parking, but it's worth the wait. A professionally installed epoxy floor serves you for 5-10 years. However, it may last longer, depending on usage. For instance, commercial garage flooring wears faster than a private garage at home.
An epoxy floor expert prepares your floor before applying at least three coats. The preparation and layers provide the best durability. The primer is the first layer, followed by the base coat and, finally, the topcoat. As you can imagine, the finished coat is thick and hard enough to resist impact and chemicals. The base coat lets you play around with colors and designs. Lastly, the final coat gives you a smooth glossy finish.
Epoxy is also great for commercial garage flooring because it resists wear. You can park cars and walk over the years. With a non-slip additive, the floors resist slipping to prevent injuries. The thick coating also seals cracks and imperfections. You can enjoy a durable and smooth floor finish
Purpose of Skirting
Skirting in some projects is an aspect of beautification and for some, it’s a method to hide the unwanted features in the interior walls. These skirting boards were known as mop boards as they protect the wall from water when the floor was mopped. Different purposes for which skirting are installed are mentioned below:

1. Hide exposed electrical wiring: Skirting can be used to cover up the exposed electrical wires and connection that cannot be removed. Hiding these wiring under the skirting board is found more economical and practical compared to hiding under the ceiling board.
   
   
2. Cover the gap between the walls and floors: Some construction flops may result in unwanted gaps between the wall and the floor. Redoing such works is time-consuming and costly. One alternative is to install skirting so that the poor work is covered and cleared economically.
   
   
3. Avoids marks from furniture: The skirting board installed has a projection that always keeps a gap between the nearby furniture and the interior wall. This way rubbing and scratching from the furniture are avoided letting the wall free of scratches.
   
   
4. Improve Interior: A matched and good colored skirting gives the room a finished and cleaner look. Skirting throws a professional touch to the room it is installed.
   
   

Linear Bearings: What You Need to Know
Linear bearings are rolling-element and fluid-film devices that reduce friction in motion systems where the motion acts along a straight — or sometimes curved — pathway. They are distinguished from radial bearings in which motion is rotary. Linear bearings are used in machine tool applications such as sliding doors, 3D printers, and automation settings where reducing friction and guiding linear motion is needed. They can be loosely grouped as ball and roller types that use the rolling motion of rolling elements and sliding types that rely on lubricant and low-friction surfaces. This article will discuss the distinct forms that linear bearings take and highlight some general applications.
SLIDE-TYPE BEARINGS
Sometimes called linear bushings, linear bearings are manufactured in sintered aluminum bronze, metal/polymer composites, carbon insert styles, polymer-lined sleeves, etc. and rely on a lubricating film to form between the bearing and the shaft while the two are in relative motion. Powdered-metal bronze bushings have been used for many years as die-post bushings. Their porous constructions, often with carbon plug inserts, are vacuum impregnated with oil that flows to and from the bearing under the frictional heat developed as the shaft moves and stops, providing a film of oil between the bearing and the shaft.
Polymer, self-lubricating linear bushings have captured some of the market that had been dominated by sintered metal bushings. The polymer itself — typically PTFE — provides slipperiness for the running shaft. These are popular in food packaging for their ability to run without lubricants and their ability to withstand washdown chemicals. They can run on unhardened shafts having high corrosion resistance. Because polymers are subject to cold flow at high loads and do not dissipate heat well, polymer is often bonded in thin sections to metal backers in the construction of these bearings.
Linear bushings can be crowned slightly to permit some angular adjustment of the bushing relative to the housing to adapt to shaft deflection. In more extreme cases, the bushing is supported in the housing by O-rings. Linear bushings are available as naked units or housed in pillow blocks and flanged units.
Bushings can be arranged as tandem installations in common housings to provide higher axial spread for the bearing surfaces. They are available as open and closed varieties, with the selection depending on how the shaft is supported. Shafts supported continuously over their lengths require open bushings that can clear the rod rails. Shafts supported on their ends can use closed bushings. Linear bushings are tolerant of dirt as a result of having no moving elements.
What Is a Rod End Bearing?
A rod end bearing is a common type of mechanical joint used on the ends of control rods. The steering columns in most cars, trucks and other vehicles, for example, feature tie rods with a rod end bearing. Of course, tie rods are designed to connect a vehicle’s steering rack to its steering knuckle. As a result, tie rods must be able to rotate according to the direction in which the wheel is turned. Rod end bearings allow tie rods to perform this rotation in a precise and controlled manner. To learn more about rod end bearings and how they work, keep reading. If you’re looking to purchase Rod Ends, Monroe has you covered.
Rod End Bearings Explained
Also known as a heim joint in the United States or a rose joint in the United Kingdom, a rod end bearing is a mechanical joint that features a rounded ball-like swiveling tip. They were invented in Germany during the 1930s to 40s for use in aircraft control systems. This promoted a company called H.G. Heim Company to patent and produce its own rod end bearings in North America, which is why the mechanical joint now has the moniker “heim joint.”
H.G. Heim Company has since closed its doors for business, but rod end bearings are still produced and used throughout the world. Automotive tie rods are just way in which rod end bearings are used. They are used in countless other applications in which an articulating joint is needed, including aircraft control systems, steering links, track rollers and more.
Rod end bearings are typically made using the following materials:
Steel
Stainless steel
High-carbon steel
Aluminum
Male vs Female Rod End Bearing: What’s the Difference?
A rod end bearing can be classified as either male or female depending on the way in which the threading is designed. Male rod end bearings are designed with external threading. In comparison, female rod end bearings are designed with internal threading. With interior threading, female rod end bearings can handle unique applications that aren’t possible with male rod ends bearings. Helicopters, for instance, often use female rod end bearings to adjust the direction of the blade. They allow pilots and aviation technicians to fine tune their blade adjustments.
You can see an example of both male and female rod end bearings in the photo above. The red rod end bearing is male because the threading is located on the exterior, whereas the black rod end bearing is female because the threading is concealed inside it.
Lead Screw
A lead screw is a kind of mechanical linear actuator that converts rotational motion into linear motion. Its operation relies on the sliding of the screw shaft and the nut threads with no ball bearings between them. The screw shaft and the nut are directly moving against each other on a large contact area, so higher energy losses due to friction are produced. However, the designs of lead screw threads have evolved to minimize friction.
The lead screws are a cost-effective alternative to ball screws in low power and light to medium-duty applications. Since they have poor efficiency, their use is not advisable for continuous power transmission. Unlike ball screws, they operate silently with no vibration and have a more compact size. They are typically used as a kinematic pair (linkage) and actuation and positioning in equipment such as lathe machines, scanners, recorders, wire bonders, and disk drive testers. They are used to transmit forces in testing machines, presses, and screw jacks.
The components of a lead screw are the following:
Screw Shaft
The screw shaft is a cylindrical rod that has a single or series of grooves running helically around its length; this is referred to as the external thread.
Thread
The thread is the structure responsible for converting rotational motion into linear motion as the screw shaft and the nut slide with each other.
Nut
The lead screw nut is a cylindrical section that has an internal thread that matches the external thread of the screw shaft.Lead screws may be operated in two possible ways. One mode of operation is either the screw shaft or the nut rotates and moves linearly while the other component is fixed. This mode is commonly seen in printers and helical pairs. The other mode of operation is either the screw shaft or the nut rotates but does not move linearly. This mode is commonly seen in presses and lathes.
The design aspects of lead screws are the following:
Major Diameter
The major diameter is the largest diameter of the thread. The major diameter of the screw shaft is the distance between two opposite crests, while the major diameter of the nut is the distance between two opposite roots.
Minor Diameter
The minor diameter is the smallest diameter of the thread. The minor diameter of the screw shaft is the distance between two opposite roots, while the minor diameter of the nut is the distance between two opposite crests.
Crest
A crest is the raised helical structure in an external thread (screw shaft) and the recessed helical structure in an internal thread (nut).
Root
A root is the recessed helical structure in an external thread (screw shaft) and the raised helical structure in an internal thread.
Thread Depth
The thread depth is the distance from the root to the crest, measured radially.
Flank
The flank is the surface that connects the root to the crest.
Pitch Diameter
The pitch diameter, or the effective diameter, lies concentrically and approximately halfway between the major and minor diameters. It is the diameter of the imaginary cylinder whose circumference intersects half of the thread pitch.
Pitch
The pitch is the axial distance between two adjacent threads measured parallel to the axis. It is equivalent to 1/number of threads per inch.
Lead
The lead is the linear distance traveled by the screw shaft or nut along its axis in one complete revolution (3600 rotation). As the lead increases, the linear speed also increases, but the load capacity of the lead screw decreases, etc.
Ball Bearings - A Complete Buying Guide
Ball bearings are rolling-element bearings which use balls to maintain the separation and distance between the bearing races. They are designed to reduce rotational friction while supporting both radial and axial loads.
The types of ball bearings that we think of today were initially manufactured at the end of the 19th century. The Welsh inventor Phillip Vaughan was given the first patent for ball bearings and his was the earliest design to feature a ball running along the groove in the axle assembly. Another major development came in 1869 when the Paris-based bicycle mechanic Jules Suirray created the first ball bearing of the radial variety. This radial bearing was included in the manufacture of the bicycle that French racer James Moore rode to victory in the first Paris-Rouen race of 1869.
The use of ball bearings for manufacturing purposes has become widespread since the turn of the 20th century. They are integrated into the production of various mechanical instruments and devices due to the associated ease of movement and friction reduction. Ball bearings allow for the injection of motion between different parts and transmit energy for mechanical operation.
Open-style ball bearings are the most common variety. However, there are also shielded-style bearings, which feature metal shields on either one or both sides. The shield prevents dirt and debris from contacting and affecting the operation of the bearing. However, it also allows for the free flow of oil through the bearing for smooth operation. The use of ball bearings featuring seals has become increasingly common during recent times. These bearings also function effectively and are particularly unlikely to fail. The more balls featured within the ball bearing, the greater the load that the bearing will be able to take.
What Are the Uses of the Claw Hammer?
There are several types of hammers used for different construction processes; however, the claw hammer is the most common type used. The hammer contains a steel head and a handle made from various different types of materials. It is used primarily for pounding or extracting nails from wood.
Specifications
Claw hammers are commonly used for everyday purposes and for construction projects. These types of hammers weigh anywhere from 7 to 32 oz. The weight is derived from the head of the hammer only. The handle of a claw hammer is made from either wood, fiberglass or steel. If a claw hammer is laid down, it resembles the letter "T." The handle is the long part of the "T," while the top line of the "T" is the hammer's head.
Uses
The main purposes of a claw hammer are to pound nails into wood or extract nails. One side of the hammer head is flat and is used for pounding. The other side of the hammer head contains a claw and is used for extracting nails out of surfaces such as wood. The claw side of the hammer head resembles the letter "V" which allows a nail to fit into it. The person using the hammer places the claw hammer with the claw around the nail and pulls up or down with the handle to extract the nail.

Considerations
Higher priced hammers typically are built stronger with sturdier handles. Claw hammers are built using two pieces: the handle and the head. The two pieces are then attached. Other claw hammers are built and forged using only one piece. These types tend to be harder to break when using them.
Details
Claw hammers are designed to be used with wood working projects. They are not built for metal projects. One type of claw hammer is called a framing hammer. This type is designed to reduce the number of strikes it takes to pound a nail into wood and contains a larger, heavier head.

What is Hook and Loop?
Hook and loop fasteners are constructed from of two different pieces of nylon, one side acts as the "loop" (softer to the touch) the other side is the "hook" together these create a strong closure, whilst pulling the strips apart directly is easy, trying to separate them any other way is very difficult. Hook & Loop fasteners can be so strong that a two inch square piece is enough to support a 79 kg person. The strength of the bond however depends on how well the hooks are embedded in the loops & how much surface area is in contact with the hooks, along with the force pulling the two pieces apart.
If Hook & Loop is used to connect two rigid items together for example and picture frame to a wall the bond is very strong as any downward force is spread across the entire surface of the Hook and Loop sections, this only enforces it's strength by engaging more hooks into the loop, but by peeling the frame away from the wall, removal is relatively easy.
On garments and footwear, where hook and loop is used as a strap or pocket closure, opening is easy as a peeling action is used, this pulls each hook from the loop in smaller sections.
The Actual Definition of Textile & Its Surprising Difference from Fabric
If you work in the fashion industry, chances are you work with textiles almost constantly. Whether you're shopping for, printing on, or working with textiles, they never seem to differ much from any fabric you've worked with. Ever wonder why this is? And if they're truly the same thing, what's the definition of a textile and how is it different from fabric?
As it turns out, textiles have many uses outside of the fashion world. Aside from the obvious— clothing, bags, home decor, and so on— textiles are an important part of the medical field, toy manufacturing, weaponry, agriculture, and other unexpected fields. If you're wondering what's the difference between textiles and fabric, the answer is a lot more specific than you'd think.
To discern the vital differences between textiles and fabric, the term ‘textile’ must be clearly defined. The definition of textile is any material made of interlacing fibers, including carpet and geotextiles. Any woven or knitted fabric is a textile. What every textile has in common is that it’s made from textile fiber.
Products of textile fiber include yarn, thread, natural silk, rayon, chemical fiber short-hair silk, elastic silk, and metal wire. Textiles are created by processing, weaving or knitting these materials. These can create typically manufactured goods, such as clothing, accessories, gloves, hats, and blankets, or any type of plastic, industrial, natural fur, agricultural or medical fabric. This means that beyond the world of fashion, textiles comprise of any woven or knitted material for any use.
One example of specialized use of textiles are geotextiles, a permeable fabric that separates, filters, reinforces, protects or drains soil. Geotextiles are commonly used to improve the soil where structures, roads, or pipelines are built. These textiles have various types of material like open-mesh, warp-knitted, and non-woven textiles.
Another example is medical dressings and bandages, which are classified as medical textiles, or healthcare textiles. These textiles are more specifically used in the medical field for first aid, clinical or hygienic purposes and rehabilitation. Medical textiles must have specific qualities to be useful in the field such as biocompatible, good resistance to alkalis, absorption, and repellence, among others.
You can categorize agrotextiles, automotive textiles and other specialized textiles by their industry-specific usage. While they may consist of similar components, their use is vastly different. For this reason, you categorize textiles by industry, not components.
Textile fibers can be classified using 3 different methods: by structure, utility, and production of the textiles.
The first classification of textile fibers is according to the structure, the materials, processing technology, texture, appearance and main use of textiles which can be divided further into 14 different categories.
The second classification method is by the use of textiles, divided into clothing textiles, decorative textiles, and industrial textiles.
Lastly, textiles can be classified according to its production, into line, belt, chenille, woven fabric, textile cloth, and more. These various methods help to distinguish the specific fibers needed for a certain product.
A guide to cable ties
What are cable ties used for?
They're fasteners that bundle your cables and wires together to keep them organized and prevent damage. They come in different sizes, lengths, materials and even colors. The different uses of cable ties vary across industries, but what they all have in common is that they're the most effective way to manage your cables.
First, let's get a picture of the type of cable ties available. The table below is by no means exhaustive, as there are subsets of cable ties within this table. For example, standard cable ties can be weather resistant, which gives them different applications than their cousins'.
Standard cable ties are a fantastic all-rounder, but when you need specialized cable ties, you can get those too.
The most common material for cable ties, nylon is a tough material with good thermal, and abrasion resistance. It also resists fuels and most chemicals. Nylon 6/6, the grade most often used for cable ties, meets UL94 V-2 flammability ratings and has a working temperature range from -40°F to 185°F.
Nylon cable ties can be heat stabilized for continuous or extended exposure to high temperatures of up to 250°F. The cable tie manufacturing process can also produce UV stabilized ties for outdoor use. For example, you can have the same cable tie, but manufactured for different applications.The average passenger airplane wields 124 miles of cables, so excellent cable management is absolutely critical. The types of cable ties needed vary. For small, tight spaces, miniature heat-stabilized cable ties are a must. For hoses and larger cables, heavy duty heat stabilized cable ties are needed. Push mount cable ties also work well for aerospace and it's best to go with a heat-stabilized option for thermal endurance.
The inspiration behind hook-and-loop fastening
Hook-and-loop fastening (also known as ‘touch-and-close’) has been used by footwear designers for many years. The system is commonly used where ease and speed of fastening is desirable – for instance on young children’s shoes (where the wearer has not yet mastered the skill to properly tie laces), and some items of sportswear. It has even been utilised in certain styles of fashion footwear.
What is hook-and-loop? Two components are involved, typically consisting of a pair of lineal fabric strips (or shaped items) which are attached – normally by stitching or adhesive – to the opposing surfaces to be fastened. The first face features tiny hooks, and the second has even smaller loops. When the two components come into contact, the hooks catch in the loops and the two pieces bind together. When separated, by pulling or peeling the two surfaces apart, hook-and-loop strips make a distinctive ‘ripping’ sound.
Birth of an idea
It is a common misconception that the first hook-and-loop fastening was designed by the USA’s National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for its space programme. While it is true that the organisation made good use of this product (each space shuttle reportedly flew equipped with ten thousand inches of a special fastening made of Teflon loops, polyester hooks and glass backing, used in the astronauts’ suits and to anchor equipment), the idea for hook-and-loop fastening actually dates back to the early 1940s.
The hook-and-loop fastening system was conceived in 1941 by Swiss engineer, George de Mestral. The idea reportedly came to him after returning from a hunting trip with his dog in the Alps. He took a close look at the burrs (seeds with hooks) that kept sticking to his clothes and his dog’s fur. On examining them under a microscope, he observed hundreds of ‘hooks’ that caught on anything with a loop, such as clothing, animal fur, or hair. He soon saw the possibility of binding two materials together in a way that they could be easily parted – if he could work out how to reproduce the hooks and loops. This is a classic example of the copying of nature's mechanisms, called ‘Biomimicry’.
With the help of a weaver, two hook-and-loop strips based on cotton were made. However, the cotton wore out quickly, so Mr de Mestral turned to synthetic fibres. He finally selected the recently developed nylon and, through trial and error, eventually discovered that, when sewn under hot infrared light, nylon forms hooks that worked well for the hook side of the fastening. Although he now knew how to make the hooks, he had yet to work out a way to mechanise the process, as well as making the looped side of the fastening.
At this point, Mr de Mestral found that when nylon thread was woven in loops and heat-treated, it retained its shape and was sufficiently resilient. Nevertheless, the loops had to be cut in exactly the right place so that they could be repeatedly fastened and unfastened. He bought a pair of shears and trimmed the tops off the loops, which worked well. It took another eight years to mechanise the process of weaving the hooks and a further 12 months to create the loom that trimmed the loops after weaving them. In total, a decade passed before an efficient mechanised process was created.
Mr de Mestral submitted his idea for patent in Switzerland in 1951, and this was granted four years later. The original product – ‘Velcro’ – was born, a name taken from the French words ‘velours’ (velvet), and crochet (hook). Within a few years, patents were also obtained in Belgium, Canada, Germany, Italy, Sweden, Switzerland, the Netherlands and the UK.
Mechanisms: Hook And Loop Fasteners
If you're going to be inspired by natural mechanisms, it pays to be out in nature. During a hike in the Alps with his dog in 1941, George de Mestral, a Swiss electrical engineer, found his inspiration. He and the animal had picked up a multitude of burrs during their walk, and as George picked them out of the fur and off his clothes, he wondered how they managed to attach themselves so tenaciously.
For anyone unfamiliar with these unwelcome travelers, burrs are the spiky ripe fruit of any of a number of plants, most commonly the Burdock. The burrs are a dispersal strategy used by the plant to send its seeds far and wide by hitching a ride on the coat of a passing animal.
George put a burr under a microscope and was fascinated by what he saw. Each spike on the burr ended in a sharp point that looped back into a hook shape. Mixed in with the spikes were strands of the dog's hair, knotted and tangled around the multitude of hooks. What's more, the wool of his trousers and socks, standing out from the surface of his clothing as tiny loops, were the perfect medium to catch the burr's hook.
In that moment, George found inspiration for a new kind of fastener, and he would labor for the better part of a decade perfecting his invention. Early prototypes using natural fibers worked, but not for long as the shape of the mechanism quickly wore out. George found that the new miracle fiber Nylon was perfect for hooks and the loops that would stand up to repeated use, and was soon able to create small amounts of working fasteners. But perfecting a mechanized process for creating the stuff proved difficult. He finally hit upon weaving stiff Nylon threads into loops while heating the thread, causing it to stick out from the backer. A clip with shears then formed the hooks, and loops came from thinner threads similarly woven but left unsnipped.

What is MDF? Plus Tips for Using MDF
MDF (medium-density fiberboard) is inexpensive, durable, and a good choice for many woodworking and carpentry projects. Learn how to use it correctly, and how to avoid common mistakes.
Medium-density fiberboard is the most versatile building material I know of. Because it's inexpensive and fairly durable, medium density fiberboard s a good choice for practical projects like shelving and storage cabinets. But MDF wood is great for decorative projects too. The smooth surface of medium density fiberboard is perfect for painting, and a router leaves crisp profiles with no splintering, burning or tear-out.
Over the past 15 years, I've used MDF to build everything from crude shelving in my shop to fancy trim in upscale homes. I've even used it for furniture and ornate millwork like the trim board shown in the lead photo. In fact, my own home is entirely trimmed out with MDF moldings made from about 50 sheets of MDF. Yes, I'm a fan of the stuff. This article will cover the most important things I've learned about working with MDF—and help you avoid some of the frustrating mistakes I've made.
MDF is basically sawdust and glue, fused together under pressure and heat. It varies in color from tan to chocolate brown. Common thicknesses range from 1/4 in. to 1 in., but most home centers carry only 1/2-in. and 3/4-in. Full sheets are oversized by 1 in., so a “4 x 8” sheet is actually 49 x 97 in. A full sheet of 3/4-in. MDF costs about $30 (as of 2010). Some home centers also carry MDF boards in various lengths and widths. Working with MDF is no different from working with wood or plywood; you use the same tools to cut and shape it.
When a job calls for painted trim, I almost always cut costs with MDF. Even inexpensive wood, like this poplar baseboard, costs four times as much. To make trim, I cut MDF sheets into strips and shape the edges with a router or router table. With the right bit, I can create just about any trim profile, simple or fancy. (Check woodworking stores or online for a large selection of bits.) Some home centers carry ready-made MDF wood trim for less than the price of solid wood.
MDF or Plywood: Which One is Better for Your House?
Though these two materials may have found a place in your home, they are definitely not interchangeable. Both are often used in building kitchens and modular furniture and like every other material, MDF and plywood come with their set of advantages and disadvantages. Given their frequency of use, we thought we'd give you a lowdown on the MDF vs Plywood comparison,. A little extra information never did any harm, right? Read on.
MDF is medium-density fiberboard, which is basically engineered wood obtained by breaking down hardwood and softwood composites. Since an MDF board is made up of small wood fibres, there are no visible wood grains or knots. The fibres are joined together using wax to produce panels by applying pressure or high temperature.
Advantages of MDF Material
Now that we know what an MDF board is composed of, we are sure you want to know how good or bad it is.
MDF is generally cheaper when compared to plywood
The surface of an MDF board is very smooth and makes for a great base for painting
Thanks to the smooth edges, it is easy to cut and carve designs out of MDF
It is denser and stronger than a particle board

Advantages of Plywood
Plywood has a lot of advantages that you could consider while getting it installed at your home.
Made up of multiple layers of veneer, plywood is a tough material to use at home
It does not soak water and liquids like MDF. Thus, it is less susceptible to damage
Because of the grains that plywood has, it is easier to stain and thus makes for a great material for cabinets and tabletops
Since it is made up of layers, plywood holds screws tightly, as each layer ensures better holding for the screw
This material comes in various designs and thicknesses
Reasons why PVC boards are much better than Plywood? What are their characteristics?
PVC boards and plywood are widely used for making cabinets and other items for the house or office needs. They are mostly used for kitchen remodeling. Although both PVC and plywood has equal role and importance to play in any renovation or remodeling works, the PVC boards are broadly used when compared to the plywood. There are certainly a few reasons to validate this.
Here are a few facts that make PVC a better choice than plywood:
PVC foam board consists of materials like thermoplastics. This is the combination of wood fiber and PVC and thus also termed as Wood-plastic composite. This material may also contain some filler materials, which are inorganic. Whereas plywood's are mostly two or three wood boards glued together.
We know that kitchen is an area that is most exposed to moisture and heat. Perhaps at such circumstances, plywood may not efficiently sustain both the conditions. If you expect the longevity and durability of the materials to sustain moisture and heat, then PVC will be a perfect choice
When it comes to shaping, PVC is very flexible compared to plywood. You are absolutely flexible to cut or shape PVC however you want it, but it is not possible to do the same with plywood
PVC never needs any polish works before it is to be installed. Whereas plywood should certainly be polished to get a complete look after installation and completion of all works
In the case of plywood, it may split when the atmosphere is moisture or hot. But in the case of PVC foam sheet, there are no such worries for you, as this material is resistant to heat and moisture
If you are more worried about environmental impact of material you are using for kitchen interiors, then PVC will be a perfect choice. Since PVC is made of recycled waste plastic and wood, there is absolutely no need to cut trees, whereas if you want plywood then you need to think of deforestation.
The application of PVC is wide and huge when compared to plywood. You are flexible to use PVC plastic Sheet for various decorative purposes and you are never limited by its usage. You can design your dream design without any limitations by using PVC, whereas this may not be possible with plywood. This may cause some limitations in your designing works.
It is not only these factors that may influence your selection process, but also the price of PVC is comparatively less than plywood and thus becomes affordable to all.
What is Marine Plywood Made From?
Marine plywood is constructed from water resistant tropical hardwood, and as these are naturally water resistant, they make marine plywood better than other types of plywood in situations where moisture levels are higher.
There are certain wood species, such as cedar, cypress and redwood, Western Larch or Douglas Fir, that have a natural resistance to decay.
Whilst marine plywood is not pressure treated to enable it to withstand decay, high quality grade veneers are used to increase its resistance.
As a result of this, it is made to withstand moisture far better than standard plywood as it will be well protected with water resistant materials.
How is Marine Plywood Made?
Marine plywood is available in different grades namely:
A-A
A-B
B-B
MDO
HDO
As with other types of plywood, marine grade plywood is composed of thin sheets of wood veneers, which are arranged in perpendicular layers so as to make it stronger.
Cross lamination is used so as to have the plies perpendicular to each other, so that the panel will be given additional strength in both directions.
Finally, the panel is bonded under high heat and extreme pressure.
When it comes to marine plywood, waterproof glue is used to bond the layers, making it ideal for use in areas where humidity levels or moisture is higher than normal.
Due to the waterproof glue, you do not need to worry about the layers de-laminating over time.
What is film faced plywood used for?
Film faced plywood is an exterior plywood used in building and construction projects. It has a special film coating on its surface made from phenol or melamine on either or both sides which gives the plywood a higher resistance to moisture, abrasion, chemical degradation and fungal attack compared to ordinary plywood.
Because of its increased stability and resistance to moisture, ultraviolet radiation and corrosive chemicals, film-faced plywood is ideal for outdoor applications such as the external surfaces of new buildings. The extra film layer and acrylic varnished edges of this type of plywood make it more durable and less able to distort when used outdoors in harsh weather and adverse conditions. Buildings in direct sunlight are less prone to wear and tear if they are made from film-faced plywood, at least as part of the overall structure.
The plywood is useful for forming level molding boards and girder molding boards, which need to be resistant to strong forces, large amounts of fast-flowing water and yet still maintain their structural integrity and shape. There is a choice of thicknesses available, depending on requirements, from 12mm, 15mm and 18mm to 21mm, 24mm and 27mm. Some examples can reach 30mm.

History & Development Of Printing Machines
Printers in Indonesian mean printers (printing devices) and as already known together, the printer is an output device in the form of hardware that is connected to a computer or other digital device. The printer has a function to print text, images and other digital displays to various print media such as paper and the like.
The printer in its development has undergone rapid changes as well as output devices and other computer inputs. The development of printers is still continuing today. Competition between printer manufacturers is increasingly intense where each producer constantly releases their best innovations and products. The evolution of the printer has also been done a lot since the invention of this device until now both in terms of size, speed, price, quality, quantity, and operating techniques.
Very simple forms of printing can be found in China and Korea around 175 AD. The look is upside down on wood, and then bronze has been made this year. The tool is then spiked with ink and then placed on a piece of paper and gently scrubbed using a bamboo stick. Functions that are almost similar to today's stamps.
Ancient Chinese Prints
The Chinese made many discoveries. They found paper in the first century and moveable types made of clay around the 11th century. Koreans first made a moveable type from bronze in the mid-13th century. However, there is no known connection between the early discovery of Asians and the discovery of printing in Europe in the 15th century.
The innovations made by Chinese people to create ink and block printing greatly influence the writing tradition. However, developments in China are not as powerful as developments in the European region. This is because the Chinese alphabet writing has thousands of specific ideograms, making it very difficult to apply to typewriter media. The impact is that there are almost no significant changes regarding the efficiency of production in China as developments in Europe have occurred.
A major breakthrough came around 1440 by Johannes Gutenberg from the city of Mainz, Germany. Gutenberg created a method of casting letter pieces on metal blends made from a mixture of lead, lead, and antimony that is critical for producing durable prints that produce high-quality printed books. Its discovery is considered to be the most ingenious invention, the special matrix allows the formation of new prints that are fast and precise from a uniform frame and prove to be more suitable for printing than clay, wood or bronze molds created in East Asia
Gutenberg is also recognized for introducing oil-based inks that are more durable than the water-based inks that were used. As a printing material he used a manuscript made of animal and paper skin, the last of which was introduced in Europe from China using the Arab method several centuries ago. People in Europe at that time were indeed developing movable prints, including those made by goldsmith Procopius Waldfoghel from France and Laurens Janszoon Coster from the Netherlands. However, they are not known to have contributed specific progress to the printing press.
Over time, printer technology continues to be developed to adjust the needs of users in its time. Post World War II in the early 1950s, in Europe there was a very rapid cultural development to make the need for a fast and inexpensive writing document production process. At this time, the latest innovation in the printing world began to be developed. Starting from IBM, which introduced the first dot matrix printer. Then, in 1984 ink jet printers were first introduced and produced on a large scale in 1990.
Different Types Of Industrial Printing Machines
In the industrial set up of the economy, the printing machines are growing in large numbers. Different printing techniques and processes are used by every industry for effective communication. Any machine used in printing ink on the substrate (printing medium) which can be cloth, paper or plastic, is referred to as the printing machinery. By applying pressure to the substrate, the printing machinery transfers the ink on the printing medium resting on an inked platform composed of movable type. The development of industrial printing machines changed a lot of things in the world. It would make transfer and preservation of historical records, scientific findings, and knowledge easy and possible. There's a great advancement in the printing machinery introduced in the market today given the improvement in science and technology. There's a competition in the industry, as many companies are now making printing press. As every company is introducing better features and making an effort to overcome the other competitors, this has led to the introduction of many enhanced features in printing machinery. With the introduction of various features in these types of machinery, printing is now easier to be done than it was in earlier days.
Today, printing machinery is available in many sizes to suit different needs. Bigger sizes of printing machinery are available for heavy-duty printing or big-time printing businesses. You can get small and medium sizes too for small and medium printing businesses. The machinery size determines the volume of printing that will be done in a day, to a greater extent. When compared with small-sized printing machinery, the heavy industrial printing machines can print a lot of things per hour or regularly. There are different types of printing machines for printing on a different medium since different printing machines make use of different printing technology. Each of the below-mentioned printing machinery is meant to serve a particular purpose. You must consider your printing needs or the type of printing that you are doing before you want to buy or order for your printing machine. Several factors such as the size, the type of printing done, the seller, the brand, and others determine the cost.
Types Of Printing Machines

• Digital Printers
  
  
• Ink-jet Printers
  
  
• Screen Printers
  
  
• Embossing Machines
  
  
• Flexographic Printing Machine
  
  
• Letterpress Printing Machines
  
  
• Offset Printers
  
  
• Laser printers
  
  
• Wireless Printers
  
  
• 3D Printers
  
  
• Thermographic Printers
  
  
• Electrostatic Printing Machine
  
  
• Pad Printers
  
  
• Rotogravure Printing Machines
  
  

• Help produce tubing in a single operation
  
  
• Regulates film width and thickness depending on the volume of air in the bubble, extruder output, speed of the haul-off.
  
  
• It eliminates effects such as edge bead trim, non-uniform temperature.
  
  
• Bi axial orientation is possible.
  
  
• Can be used for food packaging.
  
  

What Does the Radiator Support Do?
The radiator plays a critical role in your engine's performance and overall function. The radiator is ultimately responsible for keeping your engine at the optimal running temperature. When the radiator becomes damaged, it can cause serious engine performance problems. The radiator support, naturally, is there to keep your radiator intact and performing well.
Just like the engine has its own mounts and supports, the radiator also needs a mechanism to keep it supported and protected. Without the front radiator support, the radiator can be in significant danger of becoming damaged. Not only does this mechanism keep the radiator held securely under the hood, but it also adheres the radiator to the engine. When this support becomes damaged, it compromises the integrity of the engine-radiator assembly line where the cooling system is able to efficiently maintain the engine temperature.
How to Fix the Issue
Repairing the issue of a bent or damaged front radiator support is complex, and greatly depends on the nature and severity of the issue. Sometimes the support can be repaired and restored, but those cases typically require a considerable amount of effort in labor and time, which usually means more money for the job. When the front radiator support is damaged or bent significantly, the part needs to be replaced, which can be pretty expensive—it is an intensive project that takes a long time. Furthermore, it requires special tools and equipment, access to the right OEM parts, and specialized knowledge in MINI frame repair.
How Much Will it Cost?
As we’ve previously mentioned, the cost of fixing the front radiator support is completely subjective to the nature and severity of the problem; however, the cost will also depend on the automotive shop you bring your MINI to. Since the problem is likely due to an accident, other damages must be fixed alongside repairing the radiator support, driving up the cost further. Often insurance companies total out cars that encounter this type of frame damage, but the issue can certainly be fixed.
How To Replace A Radiator
SAFETY FIRST
Your radiator has electrical connections. Disconnect the battery before proceeding. You'll need to raise the vehicle so you can access your radiator. You can use a car jack and stands to keep the vehicle up, but remember to put a chock behind the wheels and engage the parking brake. Wait until the engine is cold before proceeding.
This job can be dangerous, so be extra careful. You will encounter sharp edges and other circumstances that could cause injury. Protect yourself by wearing quality safety gloves and goggles. Be watchful of any moving items while working.
And, to repeat, make sure the car, engine, and coolant are NOT hot!
INSPECT OR REPLACE
Before jumping in and replacing a whole radiator, take a minute to inspect your entire coolant system. Examine the radiator (or overflow) cap. Check the belts and hoses for damaged, cracked rubber or any leaks. Find the fan clutch between the radiator and the water pump motor (on some vehicles) and make sure there is no play in the bearings.
Don't forget about your engine thermostat. If your cooling problem has caused the engine to overheat, your thermostat may have been damaged. You may want to replace this small part when replacing the radiator.
DRAIN THE RADIATOR
There are two ways to drain radiators. Remove the radiator cap for either way. Once the cap is removed, you can either open the petcock valve or remove the bottom radiator hose to drain the coolant. Drain the coolant into a plastic reservoir.
DISCONNECT THE RADIATOR
With the coolant drained, you can start removing hoses, clamps and the radiator bolts keeping the radiator in place. You'll have to disconnect the following parts on most vehicles:
• Radiator reservoir hose
• Upper radiator hose
• Lower radiator hose
• Cooling fan connector
• Cooling fan mounting bolts
• Cooling fan
• Cooling fan shroud
• Transmission cooler lines (many vehicles require special tools to disconnect)
• Engine oil cooler lines (these appear in many high-heat vehicles like 4x4 and Deisel trucks)
• A/C Condenser mounting bolts
• Radiator mounting bolts
Remember to keep all the hoses, connectors, bolts, and components organized. You'll have to reinstall the parts in reverse order.
REMOVE THE OLD RADIATOR
With all the hoses, bolts, and lines removed, you should be able to remove the radiator from the vehicle. Many radiators can be removed by lifting up and out of the vehicle, but some need to be removed from underneath the vehicle.
Signs of a Bad Radiator
Bad Radiator Symptoms: Common Signs that Your Radiator is Failing
When the radiator isn't working properly, you might notice several symptoms. While this isn't an exhaustive list, here are the most common complaints.
Overheating engine
A common sign that something is wrong with the radiator is when your engine starts to overheat. This can be caused by a faulty thermostat. When a defective thermostat no longer opens, the engine will overheat and cause a breakdown.
Leaks
You might notice coolant leaking under the vehicle. It can be a red, yellow, or green fluid. When the radiator is leaking, coolant levels become too low, and when there isn't enough coolant to reduce the heat, the engine might become too hot.
Radiators are made of metal and plastic. And because plastic isn't as durable as metal, it's typical for these components to become brittle and start cracking—hence the leaks.
Shifting issues
If you have an integrated transmission cooler, you might notice trouble with shifting as the fluid becomes contaminated with coolant. This problem stems from cracks and faults in the system.
Fluid discoloration
Vehicle coolant is commonly bright yellow or green. Sometimes it can be pink or red. It flows freely between the radiator and the coolant passages located in your car's engine.
If you have a bad radiator, deposits and sludge can contaminate the coolant and turn it into a rusty color—it may even look like oil.
Look in your coolant overflow tank and inspect the color. If it's contaminated, it may also appear thicker. This causes trouble with the flow and leads to a clogged radiator.
A radiator flush might be a solution in this case.
Your Guide to Yellow Fog Lights
What Are Yellow Fog Lights?
Yellow fog lights are specially made to help drivers navigate the road carefully in foggy conditions. Yellow lights are the best among fog light colors because they hit your retina in a way that enables you to focus on the road. Staring constantly at white light can frustrate the eye, and darker colors like blue and green have limited wavelength.
In addition, yellow fog lights penetrate foggy weather better than other light colors. Fog tends to reflect the color of the driver's lights directly in front of their eyes. Staring at white light is already a difficult task, and having the white color reflected close to your retina when you are driving might destabilize your focus. In the same way, looking closely at blue lights can make your sight fuzzy. Yellow lights are the only light color most drivers can withstand in the fog.
LED Fog Lights
LED fog lights are one of the most durable light types. Although these fog lights can be quite expensive, they compensate for their price with their energy-efficient capabilities. Also, the light-emitting diodes in LED fog lights provide higher visibility for drivers on foggy roads.
Should I Get a Car with Fog Lights?
When we start writing about Thanksgiving around these parts, you know that winter isn't far behind. With winter's inevitable onslaught of snow, freezing rain and fog, we are going to use our blog to discuss things drivers should know before heading out on roads with less-than-stellar traction.
The first thing we're going to take a look at is fog lights. Available on many different types of vehicles, fog lights are a recognizable part of a vehicle's front bumper and fascia. Usually, fog lights are mounted low on a vehicle, often directly in front of the wheel well.
They look like small headlights, and can be stylishly incorporated into the exterior front-end design of a vehicle. While the design may differ, their purpose is the same – to help you, a driver, gain visibility in poor weather.
What do Fog Lights Do?
All exterior lights are usually beneficial in poor weather. We say “usually” because there are times when standard headlights, and even high beams, can be a detriment to safe driving and visibility. What's even worse about this, is it that the better the headlights are (HIID or LED for example), often the worse they become under certain circumstances.
Those circumstances involve heavy fog or snow. In these situations, headlights – both standard and high beam – can limit visibility. What happens when fog accumulates, or when snow is falling densely, is that the light put out by your headlights reflects off of the fog or snow. This creates less visibility, and makes it harder to see oncoming traffic, or even the road in front of you.
It can be especially bad at night when you are counting on the reflection of your lights to provide a path forward. Fog lights allow you to see in these circumstances, illuminating the road in front of you but not the fog or snow.

MEK Inhibitor Mechanism of Action, Side Effects, and Uses
Metastatic melanoma is a deadly cancer for which conventional chemotherapy provides little benefit. However, newer therapies involving a pathway called the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway have demonstrated success in inducing remission.
The MAPK pathway is more accurately termed the RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK pathway, and involves the regulation of cell proliferation and survival. It is constitutionally overactive in 30% of cancers. Two enzymes in this pathway, namely, BRAF and MEK, are target kinases which play crucial roles in the cell cycle.
The first therapies to target this pathway were BRAF inhibitors, but intrinsic and acquired tumor resistance quickly led to treatment failure by reactivation of the MAPK pathway. MEK inhibitors have emerged to partially overcome these resistance mechanisms and are now used in combination with BRAF inhibitors to extend the time to resistance.
MEK is a dual specificity threonine/tyrosine kinase, so called from the term MAPK/ERK kinase. It is a key effector of the three-layered RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK signaling cascade, expressed by seven genes from MAPK1 to MAPK7.
MEK inhibitors bind to and inhibit MEK, inhibiting MEK-dependent cell signaling. This inhibition leads to cell death and the inhibition of tumor growth. These are allosteric binding inhibitors of MEK which inhibit either MEK1 alone, or both MEK1 and MEK2.
What is the mechanism of action of MEK inhibitors?
The MAPK pathway is an intracellular signaling cascade that is involved in the proliferation and survival of tumor cells. Many mutations cause cancer development by activating this pathway, including BRAF and NRAS mutations. MEK is a downstream protein kinase which can be targeted to prevent reactivation of the MAPK pathway in the presence of BRAF or RAS mutations.
Normally, ERK1/2 activation initiates a variety of cellular and nuclear pathways, while also inhibiting Raf activity by a feedback loop to modulate the activity of the MAPK pathway. MEK1/2 inhibition inactivates ERK1/2 and also removes the feedback inhibition on Raf.
Drugs which selectively inhibit the MEK enzymes are able to inhibit growth and to induce the death of cells in the presence of these mutations.
Thus, MEK1/2 is highly selective in inactivating ERK1/2 but leaves other signaling pathways intact. In addition, the non-ATP binding site means they do not typically need to compete with ATP, which is present in very large amounts inside cells. A new ATP-competitive inhibitor has also been designed which is effective in mutants that display drug resistance to the ATP-noncompetitive inhibitors.
The advantages of using combination MEK inhibitor therapy with a BRAF inhibitor is the increased progression-free survival and lower toxicity, when compared with the latter alone.
What are the side effects of MEK inhibitors?
Adverse reactions with MEK inhibitors occur in two stages: immediate (within days of initiation of therapy) and chronic (following several months of exposure). Mild toxicities need not interrupt the treatment, but moderate to severe adverse effects may require temporary withdrawal of the drugs and re-initiation following resolution of the reaction. Such cessation of treatment for short periods does not seem to affect outcomes. In some studies on mice, intermittent dosing was associated with improved survival, and perhaps less toxicity.
MEK1/MEK2 inhibitors have a tendency to cause a papulopustular rash, seen in 57% of patients. Other side effects include diarrhea in 43%, whereas peripheral edema is observed in 26%. More serious adverse effects include hypertension in 12%, rash in 8%, and fatigue in 4%.
Creatine phosphokinase (CPK) levels are high in some patients, though without any evidence of underlying disease processes such as rhabdomyolysis.
Abnormal liver function tests and pneumonitis are also observed, similar to immune checkpoint inhibitors and PD-1 inhibitors. The appearance of cough, difficulty in breathing or abnormal chest signs must be followed up with chest radiography or a CT scan of the chest, and if pneumonitis is present, treatment must be stopped for a time at least.
Ocular toxicity, comprising blurring of vision and reversible chorioretinopathy (especially central serous retinopathy, CSR) is another feature of MEK inhibitor toxicity. Among these, retinal vein occlusion is irreversible. For this reason, a baseline ophthalmologic examination should be recorded. If any visual disturbance occurs, examination should be repeated and compared with baseline findings. If retinopathy is diagnosed, the drug should be withdrawn temporarily. If the retinal appearance and function normalizes within three weeks, and RVO is absent, the drug may be resumed at a lower dosage.
Other adverse effects include nausea, vomiting, constipation, alopecia, and lowered left ventricular ejection fraction. An uncommon adverse effect is the dropped-head syndrome, where the neck extensors become progressively weak because of focal non-inflammatory myopathy. CPK levels are high, and the condition fails to respond to steroids but resolves when the MEK inhibitor is discontinued.
Hallucinations and confusion are rare reactions, presumably due to the penetration of some of these drugs into the central nervous system.
Patients at increased risk of adverse events include those with pre-existing liver derangements.
How Do Antineoplastic Egfr Inhibitors Work?
Antineoplastic epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitors are a class of drugs used to treat hormone receptor-positive breast cancer (breast cancer that depends on hormones such as estrogen to grow), medullary thyroid cancer, advanced head and neck cancer, metastatic colorectal cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, and pancreatic cancer.
EGFR inhibitors are anti-cancer medications that block the activity of a protein called EGFR. EGFR is found on the surface of some normal cells and is involved in cell growth, also found at high levels on some types of cancer cells, which causes these cells to grow and divide. Blocking EGFR helps in preventing unregulated cell division, thus preventing the growth, and spread of cancer cells.
EGFR inhibitors can be classified into the following:
Tyrosine kinase inhibitors: targets the intracellular domain in EGFR and stops the activity of the EGFR.
Monoclonal antibodies: targets the extracellular ligand-binding domain of EGFR and prevents cell division.
EGFR inhibitors are administered via intravenous (into a vein) and oral routes.
EGFR inhibitors work in the following ways:
They belong to a class of medications called “tyrosine kinase inhibitors” that work by slowing down or stopping the growth of cancer cells.
They work by blocking the action of an abnormal protein that signals cancer cells to multiply. This helps slow or stop the spread of cancer cells.
They block the activity of a protein called "EGFR" and thus prevent unregulated cell division.
HOW ARE ANTINEOPLASTIC EGFR INHIBITORS USED?
Antineoplastic EGFR inhibitors are used to treat conditions such as:
Breast cancer
Non-small cell lung cancer
Medullary thyroid cancer
Metastatic colorectal cancer
Advanced squamous cell carcinoma of head and neck
Pancreatic cancer
Malignant gliomas
What Are Cyclin-Dependent Kinases?
Of the many proteins involved in cell cycle control, cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) are among the most important. CDKs are a family of multifunctional enzymes that can modify various protein substrates involved in cell cycle progression. Specifically, CDKs phosphorylate their substrates by transferring phosphate groups from ATP to specific stretches of amino acids in the substrates. Different types of eukaryotic cells contain different types and numbers of CDKs. For example, yeast have only a single CDK, whereas vertebrates have four different ones.
As their name suggests, CDKs require the presence of cyclins to become active. Cyclins are a family of proteins that have no enzymatic activity of their own but activate CDKs by binding to them. CDKs must also be in a particular phosphorylation state — with some sites phosphorylated and others dephosphorylated — in order for activation to occur. Correct phosphorylation depends on the action of other kinases and a second class of enzymes called phosphatases that are responsible for removing phosphate groups from proteins.
How Do CDKs Control the Cell Cycle?
All eukaryotes have multiple cyclins, each of which acts during a specific stage of the cell cycle. (In organisms with multiple CDKs, each CDK is paired with a specific cyclin.) All cyclins are named according to the stage at which they assemble with CDKs. Common classes of cyclins include G1-phase cyclins, G1/S-phase cyclins, S-phase cyclins, and M-phase cyclins. M-phase cyclins form M-CDK complexes and drive the cell's entry into mitosis; G1 cyclins form G1-CDK complexes and guide the cell's progress through the G1 phase; and so on.
All CDKs exist in similar amounts throughout the entire cell cycle. In contrast, cyclin manufacture and breakdown varies by stage — with cell cycle progression dependent on the synthesis of new cyclin molecules. Accordingly, cells synthesize G1- and G1/S-cyclins at different times during the G1 phase, and they produce M-cyclin molecules during the G2 phase (Figure 2). Cyclin degradation is equally important for progression through the cell cycle. Specific enzymes break down cyclins at defined times in the cell cycle. When cyclin levels decrease, the corresponding CDKs become inactive. Cell cycle arrest can occur if cyclins fail to degrade.